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Er. Amit Mahajan
1. The need for greater capacity than frame relay can handle.
2. The need to support mixed-media traffic, especially voice
and video.
Þ `oth frame relay and ATM take advantage of the
reliability and fidelity of modern digital facilities
to provide faster packet-switching than X.25.
','.! (*(.#
This layer describes the physical transmission of information through an
ATM network.
The original design of ATM was based on SONET because high data rate of
SONET¶s carrier , the boundaries of cells can be clearly defined .
SONET specifies the use of pointer to define the beginning of a payload.
Types of physical media specified for ATM include shielded and unshielded
twisted-pair, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable, which provide cell transport
capabilities ranging from a T1 rate of 1.544Mbps to a SONET range of
622Mbps.
' (.#
Þ AAL maps the data stream originated by the higher-layer protocol into the
48-byte payload of ATM cells, with the header placement being assigned by
the ATM layer.
Þ In the reverse direction, the AAL receives the payload of ATM cells in 48-
byte increments from the ATM layer and maps those increments into the
format recognized by the higher-layer protocol
Þ *(!!!# ! are data streams with a constant bit rate, running over
established connections.
Þ *(!!!# ! are similar, but instead of being locked to a regular
data rate they send 'peaks' of data at some times, and little or none at
others. Examples include compressed video
Þ *(!!!# ! are those carrying data messages on established
connections. These are inherently variable bit-rate, as Class `.
Examples include X.25 and Frame Relay.
Þ *(!!
!# !are the so called connectionless datagrams, where a
packet of data is sent into the network and contains its own destination
address. Examples include many traditional local-area networks such
as Ethernet, wide area networks and the new switched multimegabit
Þ AAL1 is designated for transporting constant bit rate (C`R) data, such
as real-time voice and video traffic.
Þ First byte in the normal 48-byte cell payload is used for cell sequencing
and protection of the sequence number, limiting the actual payload to
47 bytes per AAL1-generated cell.
Þ The AAL2 was intended to support a V`R .
Þ `ut now used for low-bit-rate traffic & short frame traffic such as
audio,video or fax .ex mobile telephony.
Þ AAL3/4 uses four additional bytes beyond the cell header. The use of those
bytes makes 44 bytes in the cell available for transporting the actual
payload.
Þ In comparison, AAL5 uses all 48 bytes beyond the cell header to transport
the payload, providing a minimum 10% enhanced throughput in
comparison to AAL3/4.
0
0
,
Þ ATM signalling uses the one-pass method of connection setup that is used
in all modern telecommunication networks, such as the telephone network.
Þ First, a source end system sends a setup message, which is forwarded to the first
ATM switch (ingress switch) in the network. This switch sends a call
proceeding message and invokes an ATM routing protocol. The signaling
request is propagated across the network. The exit switch (called the egress
switch) that is attached to the destination end system receives the setup
message. The egress switch forwards the setup message to the end system
across its UNI, and the ATM end system sends a connect message if the
connection is accepted. The connect message traverses back through the
network along the same path to the source end system, which sends a connect
acknowledge message back to the destination to acknowledge the connection.
Data transfer can then begin.
LAN Emulation (LANE) is a standard defined by the ATM Forum that gives
to stations attached via ATM the same capabilities that they normally obtain
from legacy LANs.
The LANE protocol defines mechanisms for emulating either an IEEE 802.3
Ethernet or an 802.5 Token Ring LAN.
The LANE protocols make an ATM network look and behave like an Ethernet or
Token Ring
Þ The server creates a virtual circuit between the source & the destination
station.The source station can now use this virtual circuit(& the
corresponding identifier) to send the frame or frames to the destination.
Þ #( (!($" ##+ -ÃMulticasting & `roadcasting
require the use of another server called the broadcast/unknown
server(`US).If a station needs to send a frame to a group of stations or to
every station,the frame first goes to the bus;this server has permanent
virtual connnection to every station.The server creates copies of the
received frame & sends a copy to a group of stations or to all
stations,simulating a multicasting or broadcasting process.The server can
also deliver a unicast frame by sending the frame to every station.In this
case the destination address is unknown.This is sometimes more efficient
then getting the connection identifier from the LES
Þ This server is always waiting to receive the initial contact.It has well
known ATM address that is known to every client in the system.
Þ The LECS maintains a database of LECs and the ELANs to which they
belong.
2
uality-of-service (oS) that guarantees traffic contract, traffic shaping,
and traffic policing is based on the service class , user related attributes,&
network-related attributes
Þ #( #( specifies an envelope that describes the intended data
flow. When an ATM end system connects to an ATM network, it enters a
contract with the network, based on oS parameters.
Þ #( !'(&1 is the use of queues to constrain data bursts, limit peak
data rate, and smooth jitters so that traffic will fit within the promised
envelope.
Þ ATM switches can use #( &* 1 to enforce the contract. The switch
can measure the actual traffic flow and compare it against the agreed-upon
traffic envelope. If the switch finds that traffic is outside of the agreed-upon
parameters, it can set the cell-loss priority (CLP) bit of the offending cells.
Setting the CLP bit makes the cell discard eligible, which means that any
switch handling the cell is allowed to drop the cell during periods of
congestion for the multimedia applications and provide overall
optimization of network resources
# *(!! 2)(*. # ,(#(%#
It is designed for customers who need real time audio or video services. The cell
rate is constant with time. C`R applications are quite sensitive to cell-delay
constant bit rate (C`R)
variation. Examples of applications that can use C`R are telephone traffic ,
videoconferencing, and television.
This class allows users to send traffic at a rate that varies with time depending on
variable bit rate±non-real time the availability of user information.It is designed for those users who do not need
(V`R±NRT) real time services but use compression techniques to create a variable bit rate.
Multimedia e-mail is an example of V`R±NRT.
This class is similar to V`R±NRT but is designed for applications that are
variable bit rate±real time sensitive to cell-delay variation. It is designed for those users who need real time
(V`R±RT) services & use compression techniques to create a variable bit rate. Examples for
real-time V`R is interactive compressed video.
This class of ATM services provides rate-based flow control and is aimed at data
traffic such as file transfer and e-mail. Although the standard does not require the
cell transfer delay and cell-loss ratio to be guaranteed or minimized, it is desirable
for switches to minimize delay and loss as much as possible. Depending upon the
available bit rate (A`R)
state of congestion in the network, the source is required to control its rate. The
users are allowed to declare a minimum cell rate.If more network capacity is
available, this minimum rate can be exceeded.A`R is particularly suitable for
applications that are bursty.
This class is a best effort delivery service that does not guarantee anything and is
unspecified bit rate (U`R)
widely used today for TCP/IP.
!##*((#3)!
Þ The Sustained cell rate is the average cell rate over a long time
interval.The actual cell rate may be lower or higher than this value, but the
average should be equal to or less than the SCR.
Þ ,The peak cell rate defines the sender¶s maximum cell rate. The
user¶s cell rate can sometimes reach this peak,as long as the SCR is
maintained.
Þ The minimum cell rate defines the minimum cell rate acceptable to
the sender.For example,if the MCR is 50,000, the network must guarantee
that the sender can send atleast 50,000 cells per second.
Þ The cell loss ratio defines the fraction of cells lost(or delivered so
late that they are considered lost) during transmission.For example, if the
sender sends 100 cells & one of them is lost,the CLR is
CLR = 1/100 = 10-2
Þ
The cell transfer delay is the average time needed for a cell to travel
from source to destination. The maximum CTD & the minimum CTD also
considered attributes.
Þ
The cell delay variation is the difference between CTD maximum &
the CTD minimum.
Þ The cell error ratio defines the fraction of cells delivered in error.
,#
Þ When IP works with ATM , the IP packets are segmented into fixed length cells
of ATM, transmitted through the ATM network, & then reassembled into IP
packets at the receiving end.
Þ Each entry/exit point is a router. An ATM backbone can span an entire continent
and may have tens or even hundreds of ATM switches.
Þ Most ATM backbones have a permanent virtual channel (VC) between each pair
of entry/exit points.
Þ For Æ entry points, Æ(Æ - 1) permanent VCs are needed to directly
connect Æ entry/exit points. Each router interface that connects to the
ATM network will have two addresses. The router interface will have
an IP address, as usual, and the router will have an ATM address, which
is essentially a LAN address.
Þ Consider now an IP datagram that is to be moved across the ATM
backbone To four IP routers, the backbone appears as a single logical
linkÃATM interconnects these four routers just as Ethernet can be used
to connect four routers.
Þ Let us refer to the router at which the datagram enters the ATM network
as the ³entry router´ and the router at which the datagram leaves the
network as the ³exit router.´
Þ The entry router does the following:
1. Examines the destination address of the datagram.
2. Indexes its routing table and determines the IP address of the exit
router
3. To move the datagram to the next router, the physical address of the
next-hop router must be determined.
4. IP in the entry router then passes down to the link layer (that is, ATM)
the datagram along with the ATM address of the exit router.
ATM must now move the datagram to the ATM destination address. This task
has two subtasks:
Þ Determine the VCI for the VC that leads to the ATM destination address.
Þ Segment the datagram into cells at the sending side of the VC (that is, at the
entry router), and reassemble the cells into the original datagram at the
receiving side of the VC (that is, at the exit router).
Þ ATM uses AAL5 to provide a more efficient way to segment and reassemble a
datagram. Recall that IP in the entry router passes the datagram down to ATM
along with the ATM address of the exit router. ATM in the entry router indexes
an ATM table to determine the VCI for the VC that leads to the ATM destination
address. AAL5 then creates ATM cells out of the IP datagram:
Þ The datagram is encapsulated in a CPCS-PDU using the format in fig.
Þ The CPCS-PDU is chopped up into 48-byte chunks. Each chunk is placed in the
payload field of an ATM cell.
Þ All of the cells except for the last cell have the third bit of the PT field set to 0.