1

Choice of Habitat
Relationship between an organisms suitability to its
habitat and abiotic factors to include measurement
of any three of the following:

Mineral content

Percentage air in soil

Percentage water in
soil

Percentage humus

Salinity

Degree of eposure

Slope

pH

!emperature "air and

ground or a#uatic$

%ight intensity

&ater current

'ir current

Dissol(ed oygen
)
1.5.4 INVESTIGATE ANY THREE ABIOTIC FACTORS
PRESENT IN THE SELECTED ECOSYSTEM, AS LISTED
RELATE RESULTS TO CHOICE OF HABITAT SELECTED
BY EACH ORGANISM IDENTIFIED IN THIS STUDY
Abiotic !cto"# !# $i#t%& i' t(%
#)$$!b*#+

pH, temperature (air and ground or

aquatic), light intensity, water current,
air current, dissolved oxygen, mineral
content, percentage air in soil,
percentage water in soil, percentage
humus, salinity, degree of exposure and
slope.
M!t%"i!$#,E-*i./%'t

Equipment to measure the chosen

abiotic factors.
*
+rom ,Syllabus Clarifications

1.5.4 Keep it simple - presence or absence

of the abiotic factor will sufce.

Measure simply - e.g. temperature. Relate

the abiotic factor to the ecosystem being
studied.

Three (3) suitable factors that are relevant

/present in the habitat from the list above.
Investigate these factors in the investigation.
Suitability to habitat. (Syllabus P13, Teacher
Guidelines P23).
.
P"oc%&*"%
1. hoose any three abiotic factors present in the
selected ecosystem from the list above.
!. "easure the abiotic factors for the habitat of each
of the identi#ed organisms by using the
appropriate equipment and following the relevant
instructions.
$. %ecord results.
&. 'amiliarise yourself with all procedures before
starting.
(. %elate results to the choice of habitat by
commenting on the suitability of each habitat for
the organism.
/
R%#*$t
'biotic factors and measurements
0rganism 1ame Habitat
2
Co'c$*#io',Co//%'t
3
C$ic0 o' t(% $i'0 o"
b!c01"o*'&
i'o"/!tio' o'+

pH

temperature (air
and ground or
aquatic)

light intensity

water current

air current

dissolved oxygen

mineral content

) air in soil

) water in soil

) humus in soil

salinity

degree of
exposure

slope

*dvance
preparation

Helpful hints
4
pH
+oth in soil and water, pH a,ects plant
growth. Each species grows best at a
certain pH. *ny departure from the
optimum pH will have an adverse e,ect
and may -ill the plant. .lants such as
brac-en, gorse, heather, a/alea,
rhododendron, camellia, and oa- only
grow on acid soils (pH range &.0 1 2.().
3hese plants are now -nown to be
intolerant of calcium ions in the soil and
may be -nown as c!$ci*1%# (4lime
haters5). .lants that live in limestone
soils (pH range 6.( 1 7.0) are -nown as
c!$cico$%# (4limetolerant5)
5
pH
ertain aquatic animals, such as the freshwater
shrimp, can tolerate a wide range of pH.
8thers, such as planarian 9atworms, caddis 9y
larvae and some damsel9y nymphs are more
abundant in al-aline, calcium1rich waters.
Earthworms also prefer al-aline soils.
"ar-ed changes in pH are ecological features in
some areas e.g. woodland in :illarney ;ational
.ar-. 3he pH over the limestone areas is
al-aline and one #nds beech and ash. *s the
soil becomes acidic over the sandstone areas
the 9ora changes and oa- becomes the
predominant tree species.
16
pH
<ithin certain habitats there can also be mar-ed
changes in pH. Heathland #res signi#cantly
alter the surface pH by adding ash from the
burnt stems and leaves of heather and other
plants. *sh is extremely al-aline, at pH 10.0 1
11.(. 3he pH in the soil changes rapidly from
&.( to about 7.0. 'or a few wee-s after the #re
pH falls slowly as al-aline salts are leached
from the soil, stabilising at about (.0 after
eight wee-s or so. =t is thought that the high
pH inhibits the germination of heather seeds
until the acidic conditions are established.
11
"easuring pH>

3he pH of water samples can be

measured directly using pH paper or a
pH meter and a probe. 3o measure the
pH of soil, ta-e a sample of soil, place it
in a measuring cylinder and add an
equal volume of distilled water. ?ha-e
vigorously for about 10 minutes and
then #lter. (=f clay particles are present,
they can be 9occulated by using barium
sulphate solution instead of distilled
water.) 3he pH of the #ltrate is then
measured.
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
1)
Temperature (air and ground or
aquatic)
3hroughout northern Europe there is a
seasonal variation in temperature
closely lin-ed to light intensity. 3here
are also daily temperature and light
cycles. =n ecological studies, the precise
temperature at any one moment is of
little value.
8f much greater signi#cance are the
diurnal (daily) and seasonal variations.
@iurnal temperature is best measured
with a max1min thermometer.
1*
Temperature (air and ground or
aquatic)
3emperatures at di,erent heights of
vegetation above ground level are also
of considerable practical importance.
=nvestigations have shown that at
midday the foliage, together with the
bare soil between plants, are the
warmest places. *t night the bare soil
cools more rapidly. 3herefore if
vegetation is removed ground level
temperature shows mar-ed 9uctuations,
a factor that a,ects the rate of
recolonisation.
1.
Temperature (air and ground or
aquatic)
"ost plants photosynthesise between
*pril and ?eptember, when the mean air
temperature is above A o. 'or the rest
of the year they undergo changes that
assist survival at low temperatures.
*nnual plants produce cold1resistant
seeds, perennials shed their leaves and
form buds or dormant underground
storage organs.
1/
Temperature (air and ground or
aquatic)
3he winter survival tactics shown by animals
include cold avoidance and cold tolerance.
old avoidance is shown by migratory birds
and butter9ies, whose annual migration to
warmer climates ensure they never
experience adverse weather conditions. old
tolerance is shown by insects 1 many insects
enter a non1feeding stage to overwinter.
Hedgehogs hibernate for the winter.
3emperature gradients are an important feature
of ponds and la-es especially in summer. ?uch
a gradient exists because warm water rises to
the surface and cold water falls.
12
Measuring Temperature>
3emperature can be measured using a standard
mercury1in glass or alcohol thermometer.
?uch a thermometer with a thic-ened bulb
and in a protective case can be used in air,
soil and water. @igital thermometers could be
used to measure habitat temperatures
instead of standard thermometers. ?tandard
maxBmin thermometers can be used to
measure the temperature range over a
period of time which, for many investigations,
is more important than a reading at any
particular moment.
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
13
Light intensity
?unlight is the source of energy that
drives all ecosystems. ?easonal
variation in light intensity a,ects plant
productivity. Cess than 0.!() of the
total incident radiation on the earth is
used by plants in the process of
photosynthesis.
"any plants grow in direct sunlight, but
most plants show some degree of shade
tolerance.
*nimals respond to changes in light
intensity by modifying their behaviour,
often moving away from or towards
light.
14
Light intensity
3wo aspects of light, its duration and its
intensity, are generally important to
ecological studies. 3he duration of
daylight hours can be determined
astronomically and is predictable for
any location. .hotoperiodism is a
biological response to the changes in
the ratio of light and dar- in a !& 1 hour
period. 'lowering plants may be divided
into three categories>
15
Light intensity
a) ?hort day plants. 3hese plants 9ower in
early spring or autumn and require a
dar- period exceeding a certain critical
length.
b) Cong day plants. 3hese plants require a
period less than the critical period. 3hey
9ower in summer.
c) @ay1neutral plants. 3hese plants are
una,ected by photoperiod.
?ome plants require only a single
exposure to the critical day1night cycle
in order to 9ower.
)6
Light intensity
Examples of photoperiodic responses in
animals are
a) "any small birds and mammals mate
in spring and early summer due to
increasing daylight.
b) onversely, sheep and goats respond
to shortening day length as they mate
in late summerBearly autumn.
)1
Measuring light intensity>
Cight intensity can be measured at any
particular time using $i1(t /%t%"#,
such as those used by photographers.
However, the readings may not be very
useful because light levels 9uctuate
continuously. =n addition, if light
intensity is being studied in relation to
the distribution of plants, it is more
important to measure the light received
over a relatively long period of time,
because it is this which most a,ects
plant performance.
))
Measuring light intensity>
Li1(t ."ob%# connected to a computer
or data1logger can be used to ta-e
continuous measurements of light.
*lternatively, it is possible to compare
the amount of light received over a long
period of time by using $i1(t#%'#iti2%
.!.%", such as o/alid paper used by
printers. 3his gradually dar-ens on
exposure.
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
)*
Water current
* still body of water will inevitably be
disturbed by various factors, which will
a,ect the distribution of organisms in
the water. <ind is considered to be the
prime factor responsible for disturbing
water, though changes in temperature
can create convection currents where
temperature is evened out across the
body of water via this movement.
).
Water current
?till water communities can vary greatly
in appearance, anything from a small
temporary puddle to a large la-e is
capable of supporting life to some
extent. 3he si/e and depth of a still
body of water are maDor factors in
determining the characteristics of that
ecosystem.
)/
Water current

8ne of the main di,erences between

still water and running water
communities is the fact that the water is
moving at a particular velocity in
running water communities.

3his can have great bearing on what

organisms occupy the ecosystem and
what particular ecological niches they
can exist in.

%unning water can bring many factors

into play a,ecting the lives of the
organisms in this particular
environment>
)2
Water current

"ovement of minerals and stones caused

by the velocity and volume of the water
means the water bed is constantly
changing. 3he faster and higher volume of
water present will result in a direct
increase in amount and si/e of particles
shifted downstream.

?tanding waves are used by salmon at the

bottom of waterfalls to spur them
upstream. *t the same time, they cause
small air poc-ets, which results in a small
habitat becoming available suited to
particular organisms.
)3
Water current

Erosion is caused by the running water

brea-ing down the river ban- and beds,
causing the geography of the river to
change over a long period of time. 3his
means, for example, that hydroseres
previously occupying the river ban-
may #nd themselves distanced from the
running water and over time this would
mean the overall ecosystem would
change.
)4
Water current
=n general the diversity of plant species in a running
water community is small compared to that of a
still water community. "ost plants have gone
through evolutionary adaptations to cope with the
force and di,erent conditions that running water
brings. *s these conditions are more harsh for a
typical species of plant, more notably larger plants,
smaller species have found the conditions of the
community more favourable. 3his is due to the fact
that they are more 9exible in regards to the
physical conditions of the water. *lgae can grow in
all sorts of di,erent places and surfaces, and
therefore are a successful constituent of the
running water ecosystem.
)5
Water current

"ost of these algae have developed

evolutionary adaptations over time that
prevent the water current sweeping
them away.

8ther animals have developed some of

the following adaptations over time that
help them cope with the conditions in
hand>
*6
Water current
?uc-ers E 3hese suc-ers attach themselves to a
surface and can also assist movement in any
direction.
Hoo-sBlaws E 3hese sharp obDects can dig into
any given obDect and allow the animal to cling to
a position or claw their way around the surface.
+ody 9attening E 3his adaptation can allow the
animal in the water bear less of the brunt of the
force of water moving downstream, therefore
reducing it as an inhibitor of their movement.
3his also allows these animals to enter con#ned
areas (such as under stones) that may present a
useful environment for them to live in.
*1
Water current
?treamlining E 3his reduces the frictional
forces between the 9owing water and
the streamlined animal.
'light E ?ome animals have adaptations
allowing them to 9y, removing
themselves from the force of the current
at ground level and enabling them to
move upstream more easily if needs be.
*)
Water current

3he simplest procedure to measure

water current is to record the time ta-en
for a 9oating obDect to travel a -nown
distance. =t is preferable to use an
obDect which is mainly submerged to
eliminate any wind e,ects.

'ormula>
urrent (mBsec) F distance travelled by
the obDect
time ta-en to travel that
distance
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
**
Air current
*ir movements may a,ect organisms indirectly,
by evaporative cooling or by a change in
humidity. =t may also a,ect them by
determining their shapeG the development of
branches and roots of trees in exposed areas.
<ind is important for dispersal of seeds and
spores.
<hen considering wind speed and direction, it is
important to remember that for most
ecological studies, degree of exposure is more
important than wind speed at any one time.
@egree of exposure is a function of wind
frequency, speed, and direction.
*.
Measuring air current>
* 3i'& 2!'% measures direction and an
!'%/o/%t%" measures wind speed.
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
*/
Dissolved oxygen
8xygen concentration in water is a limiting
factor for most aquatic organisms. <ater
always contains much less oxygen than
atmospheric air e.g. at 0
o
water contains
approximately 10 cm
$
Bl dissolved oxygen.
*s the temperature rises, the
concentration of dissolved oxygen falls
and at $0
o
the level of dissolved oxygen
is about ( cm
$
Bl.
*n animalHs requirement for oxygen
increases as the temperature rises and it
is not diIcult to see why aquatic animals
may experience stress during hot weather.
*2
Dissolved oxygen
8xygen gradients exist in large ponds and
la-es most of the year. ?urface water,
100) saturated, may contrast greatly
with the water at the bottom of the
pond, which may be only !()
saturated.
*3
Dissolved oxygen
8xygen depletion may occur for any of
the following reasons
a) =n winter when the water is covered
with ice.
b) =n late summer when plants die bac-
and microorganisms decompose dead
leaves.
c) *t any time if sewage or other organic
eJuents enter the water.
*4
Measuring dissolved
oxygen>
a dissolved oxygen probe and meter
or the <in-ler method may be
used to measure dissolved oxygen.
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
*5
Mineral content
=norganic ions constitute approximately
1) of an organism by weight, but they
are essential for its health. <hen a
mineral is in short supply or missing the
organism develops de#ciency
symptoms.
.6
Mineral content
?oil is tested by farmers and gardeners
for the presence or absence of certain
essential minerals, using soil test -its.
:its are available from garden centres.
"inerals in soil become used up or
leached away and may have to be
replaced using fertilisers or by leaving
the ground fallow for a season.
@i,erent plant species have di,erent
mineral requirements and the
distribution therefore depends on the
mineral balance of a particular soil.
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
.1
Percentage air in soil
3he amount of air present in the soil
depends on the structure of the soil and
its water content. <aterlogged soils
contain little oxygen. Cow oxygen levels
can cause anaerobic bacteria to thrive
e.g. sulphur bacteria, which produce
hydrogen sulphide (a gas toxic to many
plants).
8xygen is needed by plants for the upta-e
of minerals by active transport from the
soil.
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
.)
Percentage water in soil
3he water content of soils varies greatly. *ny freely
drained soil, which holds as much water as possible
is said to be at #eld capacity. *ddition of any more
water which cannot drain away causes water logging
and anaerobic conditions.
?ome plants can tolerate waterlogged conditions.
"any headed bog1cotton which inhabits bog pools
has aerenchyma tissue which channels oxygen to
the roots of the plant which allows it to penetrate to
depths of 20cm into the waterlogged peat.
Karrow, which lives in drier soil, is a hemi parasite
which lives o, minerals and water from roots of
other plants.
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
.*
Percentage humus
* maDor component of soil is dead organic
matter e.g. leaf litter. *s it decomposes
it forms a gelatinous brown1blac-
material called humus. Humus is a
colloidal acid substance, an immediate
product in the decomposition of dead
plants and animals.
3he presence of humus encourages plant
growth for a number of reasons.
..
Percentage humus
1. 3he moist stic-y substance binds minerals
together forming a crumbly, less compacted soil.
3his increases the air content of the soil and
improves drainage.
!. Humus provides food for many invertebrates e.g.
earthworms.
$. Humus and clay particles carry negative charges,
which prevent positively charged ions from being
washed out of the soil by rain (leaching).
&. Humus absorbs solar radiation because of its
dar- colour. Humus rich soils heat up quic-ly,
promoting the germination of seeds and the
growth of seedlings.
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
./
Salinity
3he salt content (salinity) of a water body is one of the
main factors determining what organisms will be
found there. 3hus fresh waters and saline waters are
inhabited by quite di,erent organisms. .lants and
animals that live in or use freshwater generally have a
salt content inside their cells that is greater than the
water they inhabit or use.
3hey tend to give o, salts as waste products. ?altwater
plants and animals have a salt content equal to or less
than the salinity of the surrounding water, and thus
have di,erent mechanisms for maintaining their salt
balance. =n brac-ish waters we #nd plants and
animals that can tolerate changes in salinity.
.2
Salinity
=ntertidal organisms tolerate abrupt
changes in salinity. <hen the tide is out,
they may be soa-ed in fresh water from
rain, when the tide returns, they quic-ly
return to a saltwater environment.
<ater in tide pools may evaporate,
concentrating the salts and increasing
the salinity. 8rganisms adapt to
changes in salinity in two ways. 3hey
retain sea1water inside their shell
(mussels), or quic-ly adDust their
internal salt balance (tide pool #shes).
.3
To measure salinity>
?alinity can be measured using a
conductivity probe and meter.
*lternatively, since the density of water is
related to the amount of salt dissolved
in it, the salinity of the water can be
determined from the density and water
temperature. * hydrometer can be used
to measure density. Lsing density and
water temperature values the salinity
can be read from a salinity table.
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
.4
Degree o e!posure
(a) *ir
<hen the tide is out, intertidal organisms
are exposed to the air. 3hey must not
dry out, and they must withstand air
temperatures, which vary from hot in
summer to bitter cold in winter.
3he intertidal area can be divided into
/ones, based on the length of time of
exposure to air. Mones often are
identi#ed by the plants and animals that
live within them.
.5
Degree o e!posure
3he splash /one is exposed to ocean
spray, but is covered completely only
during the highest of high tides. 3he
plants and animals e.g. lichens, snails,
sand hoppers that live here cannot live
submerged in sea water but may
bene#t from salt water spray.
3he upper shore is out of the water most
of the timeG it is completely covered
only during high tides. .lants and
animals e.g. barnacles, snails, spiral
wrac- and channel wrac- that can
withstand much exposure to air live
here.
/6
Degree o e!posure
3he mid shore is exposed to the air twice
a day and it supports a great variety of
plants and animals e.g. bladder wrac-,
-notted wrac-, sea anemones, limpets.
3he lower shore is exposed to air only
during the lowest tides. 3he plant and
animal life e.g. sea urchins, star#sh, and
serrated wrac- found here is abundant
and varied.
/1
Degree o e!posure
?ome organisms have adapted to prevent
drying out in the following ways>

3hey have protective body structures.

"olluscs have shellsG -elps have strong,
smooth blades (fronds)G chitons have 9at
bodies.

?nails withdraw into their shellsG some snails

then secrete a mucus seal.

*nemones gather in large masses to reduce

the body surface area exposed to the air.

Cimpets #t themselves into small depressions

that they ma-e in roc-s.
/)
Degree o e!posure

?eaweeds are protected by their vast

numbers. 3he upper layers of seaweed shelter
the lower layers so that only a few plants are
sacri#ced to protect the entire colony.

"ussels close their shells tightly to retain

water.
<hen considering wind speed and direction, it is
important to remember that for most
ecological studies, degree of exposure is more
important than wind speed at any one time.
@egree of exposure is a function of wind
frequency, speed and direction.
/*
Degree o e!posure
(b) <aves
<hether on roc-y shores or sandy
beaches, intertidal plants and animals
must survive the action of the waves.
=ntertidal organisms protect themselves
from being smashed against roc-s or
cast up and stranded on beaches in the
following ways>

3hey fasten themselves securely to

roc-s. Cimpets have strong, muscular
feetG -elps have strong holdfasts.
/.
Degree o e!posure

?ome animals hide from the waves by

crawling under or between roc-s or
plants. rabs crawl into crevices in
roc-s, and small animals hide in the
holdfasts of -elp. Encrusting algae grow
under roc- ledges.

?ome burrow into the sand e.g.

lugworm.
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
//
Slope
?lope usually in9uences run1o,, nutrient
accumulation, soil and organic matter
accumulation.
?lopes are important when considering the
temperature of the soil surface.
?outh1facing slopes receive more sunlight,
and are therefore warmer than north facing
slopes (in the northern hemisphere). =n
=reland, the south1western slopes face the
rain bearing winds.
/2
Slope
?lopes with a steep gradient are generally
drier than those with a shallower
gradient as water drains more readily
from a steep slope. *s a result they are
more nutrient poor, have shallower soil
and are more subDect to erosion and
higher winds. Cess steep slopes can
accumulate soil, nutrients etc. and may
be subDect to less erosion.
=f a slope is convex, erosion, winds and
run1o, are enhanced. =f a slope is
concave, accumulation of water and
nutrients may occur.
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
/3
Ad"ance preparation
%efer to
'ieldwor- hec-list E *ppendix 1
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
/4
H%$.*$ (i't#

@atalogging equipment may be

used to measure pH, temperature,
dissolved oxygen, light intensity,
and salinity.

?tudents could loo- at the

distribution of an organism and
relate it to a changing abiotic
factor in the ecosystem.
7ac8 to Select from 'biotic %ist
/5
END