55-Conservation Text

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc.
publishing as Benjamin Cummings

PowerPoint Lectures for
Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and J ane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero
Chapter 55
Conservation Biology and
Restoration Ecology
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Overview: The Biodiversity Crisis
Conservation biology integrates the following fields
to conserve biological diversity at all levels
Ecology
Evolutionary biology
Physiology
Molecular biology
Genetics
Behavioral ecology
Restoration ecology applies ecological
principles
In an effort to return degraded ecosystems to
conditions as similar as possible to their
natural state
Tropical forests
Contain some of the greatest concentrations of
species
Are being destroyed at an alarming rate
Figure 55.1
Throughout the biosphere, human activities
Are altering ecosystem processes on which we
and other species depend
Concept 55.1: Human activities threaten
Earths biodiversity
Rates of species extinction
Are difficult to determine under natural
conditions
The current rate of species extinction is high
And is largely a result of ecosystem
degradation by humans
Humans are threatening Earths biodiversity
The Three Levels of Biodiversity
Biodiversity has three main components
Genetic diversity
Species diversity
Ecosystem diversity
Genetic diversity in a vole population
Species diversity in a coastal redwood ecosystem
Community and ecosystem diversity
across the landscape of an entire region
Figure 55.2
Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity comprises
The genetic variation within a population
The genetic variation between populations
Species Diversity
Species diversity
Is the variety of species in an ecosystem or
throughout the biosphere
An endangered species
Is one that is in danger of becoming extinct
throughout its range
Threatened species
Are those that are considered likely to become
endangered in the foreseeable future
Conservation biologists are concerned about
species loss
Because of a number of alarming statistics
regarding extinction and biodiversity
Harvard biologist E. O. Wilson has identified
the Hundred Heartbeat Club
Species that number fewer than 100
individuals and are only that many heartbeats
from extinction
(a) Philippine eagle
(b) Chinese river
dolphin
(c) Javan
rhinoceros Figure 55.3ac
Ecosystem Diversity
Ecosystem diversity
Identifies the variety of ecosystems in the
biosphere
Is being affected by human activity
Biodiversity and Human Welfare
Human biophilia
Allows us to recognize the value of biodiversity
for its own sake
Species diversity
Brings humans many practical benefits
Benefits of Species and Genetic Diversity
Many pharmaceuticals
Contain substances originally derived from
plants
Figure 55.4
The loss of species
Also means the loss of genes and genetic
diversity
The enormous genetic diversity of organisms
on Earth
Has the potential for great human benefit
Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem services encompass all the
processes
Through which natural ecosystems and the
species they contain help sustain human life
on Earth
Ecosystem services include
Purification of air and water
Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
Cycling of nutrients
Moderation of weather extremes
And many others
Four Major Threats to Biodiversity
Most species loss can be traced to four major
threats
Habitat destruction
Introduced species
Overexploitation
Disruption of interaction networks
Habitat Destruction
Human alteration of habitat
Is the single greatest threat to biodiversity
throughout the biosphere
Massive destruction of habitat
Has been brought about by many types of
human activity
Many natural landscapes have been broken up
Fragmenting habitat into small patches
Figure 55.5
In almost all cases
Habitat fragmentation and destruction leads to
loss of biodiversity
I ntroduced Species
Introduced species
Are those that humans move from the species
native locations to new geographic regions
Introduced species that gain a foothold in a
new habitat
Usually disrupt their adopted community
(a) Brown tree
snake, intro-
duced to Guam
in cargo
(b) Introduced kudzu thriving in South Carolina
Figure 55.6a, b
Overexploitation
Overexploitation refers generally to the human
harvesting of wild plants or animals
At rates exceeding the ability of populations of
those species to rebound
The fishing industry
Has caused significant reduction in populations
of certain game fish
Figure 55.7
Disruption of I nteraction Networks
The extermination of keystone species by
humans
Can lead to major changes in the structure of
communities
Figure 55.8
Concept 55.2: Population conservation focuses
on population size, genetic diversity, and
critical habitat
Biologists focusing on conservation at the
population and species levels
Follow two main approaches
Small-Population Approach
Conservation biologists who adopt the small-
population approach
Study the processes that can cause very small
populations finally to become extinct
The Extinction Vortex
A small population is prone to positive-
feedback loops
That draw the population down an extinction
vortex
Small
population
Inbreeding
Genetic
drift
Lower
reproduction
Higher
mortality
Loss of
genetic
variability
Reduction in
individual
fitness and
population
adaptability
Smaller
population
Figure 55.9
The key factor driving the extinction vortex
Is the loss of the genetic variation necessary to
enable evolutionary responses to
environmental change
Case Study: The Greater Prairie Chicken and the
Extinction Vortex
Populations of the greater prairie chicken
Were fragmented by agriculture and later
found to exhibit decreased fertility
As a test of the extinction vortex hypothesis
Scientists imported genetic variation by
transplanting birds from larger populations
The declining population rebounded
Confirming that it had been on its way down an
extinction vortex
EXPRIMENT
Researchers observed that the population
collapse of the greater prairie chicken was mirrored in a reduction in
fertility, as measured by the hatching rate of eggs. Comparison of
DNA samples from the Jasper County, Illinois, population with DNA
from feathers in museum specimens showed that genetic variation
had declined in the study population. In 1992, researchers began
experimental translocations of prairie chickens from Minnesota,
Kansas, and Nebraska in an attempt to increase genetic variation.
RESULTS
After translocation (blue arrow), the viability of
eggs rapidly improved, and the population rebounded.
CONCLUSION
The researchers concluded that lack of genetic
variation had started the Jasper County population of prairie
chickens down the extinction vortex.
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(b) Hatching rate
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Figure 55.10
Minimum Viable Population Size
The minimum viable population (MVP)
Is the minimum population size at which a
species is able to sustain its numbers and
survive
A population viability analysis (PVA)
Predicts a populations chances for survival
over a particular time
Factors in the MVP of a population
Effective Population Size
A meaningful estimate of MVP
Requires a researcher to determine the
effective population size, which is based on the
breeding size of a population
Case Study: Analysis of Grizzly Bear Populations
One of the first population viability analyses
Was conducted as part of a long-term study of
grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park
Figure 55.11
This study has shown that the grizzly bear
population
Has grown substantially in the past 20 years
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1973 1982 1991 2000
Females with cubs
Cubs
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Figure 55.12
Declining-Population Approach
The declining-population approach
Focuses on threatened and endangered
populations that show a downward trend,
regardless of population size
Emphasizes the environmental factors that
caused a population to decline in the first place
Steps for Analysis and I ntervention
The declining-population approach
Requires that population declines be evaluated
on a case-by-case basis
Involves a step-by-step proactive conservation
strategy
Case Study: Decline of the Red-Cockaded
Woodpecker
Red-cockaded woodpeckers
Require specific habitat factors for survival
Had been forced into decline by habitat
destruction
(a) A red-cockaded woodpecker perches at the
entrance to its nest site in a longleaf pine.
(b) Forest that can
sustain red-cockaded
woodpeckers has
low undergrowth.
(c) Forest that cannot sustain red-cockaded
woodpeckers has high, dense undergrowth that
impacts the woodpeckers access to feeding grounds.
Figure 55.13ac
In a study where breeding cavities were
constructed
New breeding groups formed only in these
sites
On the basis of this experiment
A combination of habitat maintenance and
excavation of new breeding cavities has
enabled a once-endangered species to
rebound
Weighing Conflicting Demands
Conserving species often requires resolving
conflicts
Between the habitat needs of endangered
species and human demands
Concept 55.3: Landscape and regional
conservation aim to sustain entire biotas
In recent years, conservation biology
Has attempted to sustain the biodiversity of
entire communities, ecosystems, and
landscapes
One goal of landscape ecology, of which
ecosystem management is part
Is to understand past, present, and future
patterns of landscape use and to make
biodiversity conservation part of land-use
planning
Landscape Structure and Biodiversity
The structure of a landscape
Can strongly influence biodiversity
Fragmentation and Edges
The boundaries, or edges, between
ecosystems
Are defining features of landscapes
(a) Natural edges. Grasslands give way to forest ecosystems in
Yellowstone National Park.
(b) Edges created by human activity. Pronounced edges (roads)
surround clear-cuts in this photograph of a heavily logged rain
forest in Malaysia. Figure 55.14a, b
As habitat fragmentation increases
And edges become more extensive,
biodiversity tends to decrease
Research on fragmented forests has led to the
discovery of two groups of species
Those that live in forest edge habitats and
those that live in the forest interior
Figure 55.15
Corridors That Connect Habitat Fragments
A movement corridor
Is a narrow strip of quality habitat connecting
otherwise isolated patches
In areas of heavy human use
Artificial corridors are sometimes constructed
Figure 55.16
Movement corridors
Promote dispersal and help sustain
populations
Establishing Protected Areas
Conservation biologists are applying their
understanding of ecological dynamics
In establishing protected areas to slow the loss
of biodiversity
Much of the focus on establishing protected
areas
Has been on hot spots of biological diversity
Finding Biodiversity Hot Spots
A biodiversity hot spot is a relatively small area
With an exceptional concentration of endemic
species and a large number of endangered
and threatened species
Terrestrial
biodiversity
hot spots
Equator
Figure 55.17
Biodiversity hot spots are obviously good
choices for nature reserves
But identifying them is not always easy
Philosophy of Nature Reserves
Nature reserves are biodiversity islands
In a sea of habitat degraded to varying
degrees by human activity
One argument for extensive reserves
Is that large, far-ranging animals with low-
density populations require extensive habitats
In some cases
The size of reserves is smaller than the actual
area needed to sustain a population
Biotic boundary for
short-term survival;
MVP is 50 individuals.
Biotic boundary for
long-term survival;
MVP is 500 individuals.
Grand Teton
National Park
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43
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0 50 100
Kilometers
Yellowstone
National
Park
Shoshone R.
Montana
Wyoming
Montana
Idaho
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Figure 55.18
Zoned Reserves
The zoned reserve model recognizes that
conservation efforts
Often involve working in landscapes that are
largely human dominated
Zoned reserves
Are often established as conservation areas
(a) Boundaries of the zoned reserves are indicated by black outlines.
(b) Local schoolchildren marvel at the diversity of life in one of
Costa Ricas reserves.
Nicaragua
Costa
Rica
National park land
Buffer zone
PACIFIC OCEAN
CARIBBEAN SEA
Figure 55.19a, b
Some zoned reserves in the Fiji islands are
closed to fishing
Which actually helps to improve fishing
success in nearby areas
Figure 55.20
Concept 55.4: Restoration ecology attempts to
restore degraded ecosystems to a more natural
state
The larger the area disturbed
The longer the time that is required for
recovery
Whether a disturbance is natural or caused by
humans
Seems to make little difference in this size-
time relationship
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1,000
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Natural disasters
Human-caused disasters
Natural OR human-
caused disasters
Meteor
strike
Groundwater
exploitation
Industrial
pollution
Urbanization
Salination
Modern
agriculture
Flood
Volcanic
eruption
Acid
rain
Forest
fire
Nuclear
bomb
Tsunami
Oil
spill
Slash
& burn
Land-
slide
Tree
fall
Lightning
strike
Spatial scale (km
2
)
(log scale)
Figure 55.21
One of the basic assumptions of restoration
ecology
Is that most environmental damage is
reversible
Two key strategies in restoration ecology
Are bioremediation and augmentation of
ecosystem processes
Bioremediation
Bioremediation
Is the use of living organisms to detoxify
ecosystems
Biological Augmentation
Biological augmentation
Uses organisms to add essential materials to a
degraded ecosystem
Exploring Restoration
The newness and complexity of restoration
ecology
Require scientists to consider alternative
solutions and adjust approaches based on
experience
Exploring restoration worldwide
Truckee River, Nevada. Kissimmee River, Florida.
Equator
Figure 55.22
Tropical dry forest, Costa Rica. Succulent Karoo, South Africa.
Rhine River, Europe. Coastal Japan. Figure 55.22
Concept 55.5: Sustainable development seeks
to improve the human condition while
conserving biodiversity
Facing increasing loss and fragmentation of
habitats
How can we best manage Earths resources?
Sustainable Biosphere Initiative
The goal of this initiative is to define and
acquire the basic ecological information
necessary
For the intelligent and responsible
development, management, and conservation
of Earths resources
Case Study: Sustainable Development in Costa
Rica
Costa Ricas success in conserving tropical
biodiversity
Has involved partnerships between the
government, other organizations, and private
citizens

Human living conditions in Costa Rica
Have improved along with ecological
conservation
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Life expectancy
Infant mortality
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Figure 55.23
Biophilia and the Future of the Biosphere
Our modern lives
Are very different from those of early humans
who hunted and gathered and painted on cave
walls
(a) Detail of animals in a Paleolithic mural, Lascaux, France Figure 55.24a
But our behavior
Reflects remnants of our ancestral attachment
to nature and the diversity of life, the concept
of biophilia
(b) Biologist Carlos Rivera Gonzales examining a tiny tree frog in
Peru
Figure 55.24b
Our innate sense of connection to nature
May eventually motivate a realignment of our
environmental priorities

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Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc.

publishing as Benjamin Cummings

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