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3
= 0,
1
2
+
2
2
1
2
= Y
2
, which is an ellipse.
With further substitution of =
2
/
1
,
1
= Y/(1 +
2
)
1/2
.
Consider an isotropic material loaded so that the
principal
stresses coincide with the x, y, and z axes. Assuming
the von Mises yield criterion
Applies. We can now make a plot of
y
versus
x
yield locus with
z
= 0.
Let
x
=
1
,
y
=
2
, and
z
=0.
Now =
2
/
1
. Figure show results from
substituting several values of into Equation
solving for
x
/Y and
y
/Y =
x
/Y,
and then plotting.
The maximum ratio of
1
/Y
corresponds to the minimum value
1 +
2
.
Differentiating and setting to zero,
d(1 +
2
)/d = 1 + 2; = 1/2.
Substituting into equation ,
1
/Y = [1 1/2 + (1/2)2]
1/2
= (4/3) = 1.155.
Graphical Representations
Tresca criterion
Von Mises criterion
Region within yield locus is elastic
Onset of plasticity at the yield locus
What happens beyond is unknown
Explained by Druckers postulate, flow rule and hardening behaviour
Comparison of experimental and empirical
multiaxial yield criteria.
(After Courtney, 1990. Reprinted with
permission from McGraw-Hill.)
15.5% difference between Tresca and von Mises
No difference in two criterion in uniaxial and biaxial tension and compression
Tresca is more conservative in shear
Yield surfaces in 3D
Centre line is <111> and hydrostatic stress
(1+ 2+ 3)/3 acts along it
Tresca and von Mises yield locus are ideally hexagonal prism and cylinder in 3D
Yield locus in 2D is actually a section of this prism or cylinder
Anisotropy of Yield surface
Hill Criterion
Energy has to be expended for plastic deformation
Rate of energy dissipation is non-negative
The total plastic strain vector must be normal to the yield surface
Yield locus is always convex
True stress true strain curve stress always increases with strain
vector strain l incrementa is d where
d
p
ij
p
ij ij
c
c o 0 >
Druckers rule
Hardening rule
Expansion of yield locus with plastic deformation Strain hardening
Isotropic
Kinematic (anisotropic) Bauschinger effect Tension-compression asymmetry
YS in compression < YS in tension
Rotational
Actual is combination of all the three
Isotropic Kinematic Rotational
Effective stress and strain
Need to compare different tests say tension, torsion, compression
Complex state of stress
Effective stress and strain for comparison
Different stress strain curves can be compared in terms of von Mises
stress-strain curves
You can then compare say torsion test with tensile test
Proportional Loading
Plastic strains are independent of strain path
Ideal condition
Real life complicated stress history
Plastic stress-strain relationship is important to understand deformation behaviour
of materials
Relate stress and strain in increments Incremental/Flow theories
Relate stress to total strain Deformation/Total strain theory
The latter is easy but the former is more accurate
Both the theories coincide for proportional loading
Ideal plastic solid where elastic strains are negligible
Constant volume in plasticity
Ratio of plastic strain increment to current deviatoric stress is constant
Elasto-plastic is more complicated Levy-Mises criterion
0
33 22 11
= + + c c c
o
c
o
c
o
c
d
d d d
= = =
3
3
2
2
1
1
' ' '
Yield criterion whether material deforms plastically or not
Hardening rule how material continues to deform
Flow rule what path material follows during plastic deformation to achieve
new position according to hardening rule
Generalized theory of plasticity
Tensile properties Materials selection for applications
Tensile properties compare new materials or processes in R&D
With plasticity theory, tensile stressstrain curves can be used to predict a
materials behavior under forms of loading other than uniaxial tension, (von
Mises criterion or J2 flow theory)
Often the primary concern is strength
The level of stress that causes appreciable plastic deformation of a material
is called its yield stress.
The maximum tensile stress that a material carries is called its tensile
strength (or ultimate strength or ultimate tensile strength).
A materials ductility is also of interest. Ductility is a measure of how much
the material can deform before it fractures
Tension Test
Stress-strain curve
Elastic Limit and Yield Strength
True Elastic limit ~10
-6
Hookes law is valid
Proportional limit as the first departure from linearity
Elastic limit as the stress that causes the first plastic deformation
The more accurate the strain measurement is, the lower is the stress at
which plastic deformation and nonlinearity can be detected
Offset yield strength construct a straight line parallel to the initial
linear portion of the stressstrain curve, but offset from it by e = 0.002
(0.2%.)
Off-set Yield Strength
The yield strength is taken as the stress level at which this straight line
intersects the stressstrain curve
The rationale is that if the material had been loaded to this stress and then
unloaded, the unloading path would have been along this offset line, resulting
in a plastic strain of e = 0.002 (0.2%)
The advantage of this way of defining yielding is that it is easily reproduced
More Than one Yield Point: Upper and Lower
The stressstrain curves of some materials (e.g., low carbon steels and linear
polymers) have an initial maximum followed by a lower stress
After the initial maximum, at any given instant all of the deformation occurs within
a relatively small region of the specimen
Steels Luders band
Continued elongation occurs by propagation of the Luders band along the gauge
section, rather than by continued deformation within it. Only after the band has
traversed the entire gauge section does the stress rise again
Upper and Lower Yield Point
In the case of linear polymers, the yield strength is usually defined as the initial
maximum stress.
For steels, the subsequent lower yield strength is used to describe yielding. The
initial maximum stress is too sensitive to specimen alignment to be useful. Even
so, the lower yield strength is sensitive to the strain rate.
ASTM standards should be followed. The stress level during Luders band
propagation fluctuates. Some laboratories report the minimum level as the yield
strength and other use the average level.
Repetition of serrations Dynamic strain aging
Fe-C, Al-Mg
Tensile Strength
As long as the engineering stressstrain curve rises
uniform deformation along the length
Max stress before fracture (ductile material)
Localised deformation after max stress (Ultimate Tensile Strength)
Necking or localised deformation at UTS or TS
UTS = Fracture stress (brittle materials)
Very brittle materials (e.g., glass) fracture before they yield. Such materials
have tensile strengths, but no yield stresses
Stress strain curve for a strain hardening material
Figure 3.7. After a maximum on the stressstrain curve, deformation localizes to
form a neck.
Definition of Tensile Strength
Resilience and Toughness
Ability of absorb energy in the elastic range and release it when stress is
removed Resilience
Ability to absorb energy in plastic range Toughness
Spider silk has high toughness
High carbon steel has high resilience
Resilience
Toughness
Tensile specimens
True stress-True strain
) 1 ln(
1
) 1 (
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
e
e
A
A
L
L
L
L L
L
L
e
AL L A
e s
A
A
A
P
A
P
stress True
+ =
+ = =
=
A
=
=
+ = = = =
c
o
Where
s = engineering stress = P/A
0
e = engineering strain
Power law
n
n
n
K
K
K
) (
0
0
c c o
c o o
c o
+ =
+ =
=
Necking
Onset of non-uniform deformation
Localised thinning of sample
Decrease in load bearing capacity of sample due to reduction in cross
sectional area = Increase in load bearing capacity of sample due to strain
hardening
Homogeneous deformation below this strain
c
o
c
c
o
c
o
c
c
o
c o
n
n
d
d
Kn
d
d
K
n
n
n
n
= =
=
=
1
1
n
d
d
u
=
=
c
o
c
o
Different type of stress-strain curve
Elastic
Brittle material like glass,
ceramics
Elasto-plastic homogenous
Pure metals Cu, Al
Elasto- plastic heterogeneous
Alloys Al-Mg, twinning in Ag
Elasto- plastic heterogeneous
Yield point alloys like steel Fe-C
for crystalline polymer
Structure breakdown
and re-orientation
Rubber, no load drop
complete reversibility
Prasad and Chokshi, Acta Mater 58 (2010) 5724
Super-plasticity
Very large elongation before failure
High homologous temperature
Relative term
Visco-plasticity
Time dependent permanent deformation
Creep
High homologous temperature
(T/T
m
> 0.5)
ceramic
ty erplastici f
metal
ty erplastici f
ceramic
f
metal
f
e e
e e
sup , sup ,
>>
>>
Effect of strain rate and temperature
Stress as strain rate
Remember difference between constant
engineering strain rate (cross head velocity) and
constant true strain rate)
Yield stress as temperature
Strain rate and temperature effects decided by
micro-mechanisms of deformation
Well discuss after understanding dislocations
Different type of tests
Compression test Forming behaviour
Most metal working processes are compressive in nature (rolling, forging, with
exception of wire drawing that is tensile)
H/D ratio important in compression
H/D= 1.5 optimum if >1.5 buckling, if <1.5 barelling
(Hot) Torsion test forming behaviour at large strain
Torsion is best as there is no instability due to necking, buckling or buldging
Hardness test on small samples has compression and hydrostatic stress
Hardness = 3*YS as a general rule
Testing paves way for processing
Compression and Torsion
Hardness
Processing
Original
Compression and tension
along diffraction plane
Shear
Hydrostatic stress
Remember to find the state of stress along the diffraction direction
Also keep in mind that in diffraction, you see the reciprocal space
1
3
1
3
v1 = v2 v1 > v2
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