Scientific Method Methods of establishing the truth that includes Tenacity: accounts for many of our beliefs that we have always held to be true.
Scientific Method Authority: our beliefs we often turn to those in authority for support (more credible, competent expert) Intuition: Often the sources we turn to disagree, no matter how competent or authoritative they appear, then we turn to our intuition which is based on our personal values, early socialization, or common sense.
Scientific Generalizations About Reality
Scientists seek to make generalizations about the nature of reality. They accomplish this by repeatedly testing (replication) generalizations (hypotheses) about realityuntil sufficient confirmation is accomplished (called as tentative law)
Scientific Hypotheses
A hypothesis or scientific preposition, is usually framed which is known as a conditional form (If. Then.) The cause of any phenomenon is call independent variable and its effect we wish to explain as a dependent variable. Intervening variable (see previous slide)
Safeguards Against Bias and Fraud
It is find in the publication of findings and the replication of results. Researchers bear in mind a number of questions:- Can colleagues in the discipline agree that the hypotheses have been put to a valid test?
Safeguards Against Bias and Fraud
Are the conclusions that are drawn from the data reasonable? Are the generalization made from the data within the bounds of the phenomena examined, or do the conclusions go beyond the data? Can the findings be replicated?
The Process of Scientific Inquiry
Scientific Inquiry based on 1. Induction: particular or specific instances as observed by the scientist to arrive at general conclusions or axioms. (empiricism) 2. Deduction: in contrast, begins with what is general and applies it to particular cases; (logic or rationalism) used through hypothesis (generalization) to operational definition (to test real world situation)
The Process of Scientific Inquiry
Generalization: a statement of uniformities in the relation between two or more variables of well defined classes Hypothesis: a generalization presented in tentative and conjectural terms. Law: a hypothesis of universal from that has withstood intensive experimentation. Model: is a theoretical and simplified representation of real world
Acquiring Empirical Data
Survey Research Content Analysis Experimental Design Case Studies Reasoning about the Data Statistics Validity, External and Internal Operationally Defining the Hypothesis Reliability