Submitted by-

Siddharth M H 08M148
Shashank K S 08M142
Kartikeya 08M122
Shravan Gurukar 08M145
Contact
Direct physical contact
with the media or
object being sensed.
Used to monitor the
temperature of solids,
liquids or gases over
an extremely wide
temperature range.
Interprets the radiant
energy of a heat
source in the form of
energy emitted in the
infrared portion of the
electromagnetic
spectrum.
Used to monitor non-
reflective solids and
liquids but is not
effective with gases
due to their natural
transparency

Non Contact
Electro-Mechanical Electronic
Resistive Unconventional
Sensor
Types
Electro-mechanical
Bi-metal thermostats are exactly what the name implies:
two different metals bonded together under heat and
pressure to form a single strip of material. By employing
the different expansion rates of the two materials, thermal
energy can be converted into electro-mechanical motion.

Bulb and capillary thermostats make use of the capillary
action of expanding or contracting fluid to make or break a
set of electrical contacts. The fluid is encapsulated in a
reservoir tube that can be located 150mm to 2000mm
from the switch. This allows for slightly higher operating
temperatures than most electro-mechanical devices. Due
to the technology involved, the switching action of these
devices is slow in comparison to snap-action devices.
Electronic &
Unconventional
Silicon sensors make use of the bulk electrical resistance
properties of semiconductor materials, rather than the junction
of two differently doped areas. Especially at low temperatures,
silicon sensors provide a nearly linear increase in resistance
versus temperature or a positive temperature coefficient (PTC).
IC-type devices can provide a direct, digital temperature
reading, so theres no need for an A/D converter.

Infrared (IR) pyrometry: All objects emit infrared energy
provided their temperature is above absolute zero (0 Kelvin).
There is a direct correlation between the infrared energy an
object emits and its temperature. IR sensors measure the
infrared energy emitted from an object in the 420 micron
wavelength and convert the reading to a voltage. Typical IR
technology uses a lens to concentrate radiated energy onto a
thermopile. The resulting voltage output is amplified and
conditioned to provide a temperature reading.
HOTSPOT Technology
Thomas Seebeck and the
Thermoelectric effect
If two ends of a metal were at different temperatures, an
electric current would flow through it. That's one way of
stating what's now known as the Seebeck
effect or thermoelectric effect
Seebeck repeated the experiment with other metals and then
tried using two different metals together. Two different metals
will produce different amounts of electricity when they're
heated to the same temperature
The size of that current is directly related to the difference in
temperature between the two junctions

Thermocouples
Thermocouples are formed when two electrical
conductors of dissimilar metals or alloys are joined at one
end of a circuit.
All thermocouples have what are referred to as a hot (or
measurement) junction and a cold (or reference) junction.
One end of the conductor (the measurement junction) is
exposed to the process temperature, while the other end is
maintained at a known reference temperature.
When the ends are subjected to different temperatures, a
current will flow in the wires proportional to their temperature
difference. Temperature at the measurement junction is
determined by knowing the type of thermocouple used, the
magnitude of the millivolt potential, and the temperature of
the reference junction.
J unction Styles
Exposed junction
The sensing tip consists of two dissimilar wires joined
together by welding, soldering, crimping, or brazing to
form a hot junction. It has the fastest response time of
the three types.
Grounded junction.
The hot junction is welded to the inside of a protective
metal sheath. This protects the junction but affects
thermal response. It also makes the device more
susceptible to electromagnetic interference (EMI).
Ungrounded junction.
The hot junction is electrically insulated from its protective
metal sheath by a thermally conductive material. This
increases thermal lag but isolates the junction from EMI.
Pros
Small size provides rapid
temperature response
Relatively inexpensive
Wide temperature range of
200 to+2315C
More durable than RTDs
for use in high-vibration
and high-shock
applications
Must be protected from
corrosive environments
Use of plated-copper
instrumentation wire
results in errors when
ambient temperatures
change
Reference junction
compensation is required
Less stable than RTDs in
moderate or high
temperatures
Additional
components/circuitry
required to control
application loads
Cons
Applications
Thermocoupler
Numerical
An experiment is conducted to calibrate a copper-constant
thermocouple. With cold junction at 0C, emf obtained at
boiling point of water (100C) and boiling point of
sulfur(445C) are 5mV and 25mV, respectively. If the relation
is assumed to be
e - t
1
t
2
= a(t
1
- t
2
) +b(t
1
2
t
2
2
)
Determine constants a and b.
The above thermocouple indicates 2mV with the cold
junction at 40C. Determine the unknown hot junction
temperature.
If the cold junction is maintained at 40C, what would be the
emf when hot junction temperature is at 500C?

a) 5 = a(100) + b(100
2
)

25 = a(445) + b(445
2
)
a= 4.8209 x 10
-2
mV/C

b= 1.7912 x10
-5
mV/C

The rest of the solution can be obtained
similarly.
Thermostats
A thermostat is a device for regulating the temperature of a
system so that the system's temperature is maintained near
a desired set point temperature.
It may be a control unit for a heating or cooling system or a
component part of a heater or air conditioner
Some devices employ an internal heater to provide
protection against both excessive temperature and current.
Thermostats are typically rated in life cycles at a specific
electrical load and can vary significantly depending on
whether they are used in a control or monitoring application.


Common Technologies
Common sensor technologies in use
today include:
Bimetallic mechanical or electrical
sensors
Expanding wax pellets
Electronic thermistors and
semiconductor devices
Electrical thermocouples
Specifications
Temperature range from 85C to
+371C

Current carrying capacities range from
dry circuit loads to as high as 25A.

Standard production accuracies of upto
1.7C (3F).
Features
No additional
circuitry/components
required
Available in both
hermetic and non-
hermetically sealed
designs
High current carrying
capacity
Wide operating
temperature range

How a bimetallic thermostat
switches on and off
An outer dial adjusts the temperature at which the
thermostat switches on and off.
The dial adjusts the temperature sensor (a bimetal strip)
so it switches an electrical circuit on and off by bending
more or less.
The bimetal ("two metal") strip is made of two separate
metal strips fastened together: a piece of brass (red)
bolted to a piece of iron (blue).
Iron expands less than brass as it gets hotter, so the
bimetal strip curves inward as the temperature rises.
The bimetal strip forms part of an electrical circuit . When
the strip is straight, it acts as a bridge through which
electricity can flow. The circuit is on and so is the heating.
When the strip is bent, the circuit is broken, no electricity
can flow, and the circuit is off.

Thermostatic radiator
valves
Temperature valves fitted to central heating
radiators use thermostats that work mechanically,
rather than electrically. When the radiators heat up
to the level you've set, the valves expand and
reduce the flow of water through the radiator until
the temperature falls back down again. Coupled
with room thermostats, valves like these can stop
your home from overheatingand that's a good
way both to save energy and money and do your
bit in the fight against global warming.

Resistive Devices
Thermistors





RTD

Thermistor Symbol
Thermistors
Types of thermistors

Technology Used

Sensing element

Variable conversion

Linearity

Housing and positioning

Introduction
Thermistor temperature sensors are constructed
from sintered metal oxide in a ceramic matrix that
changes electrical resistance with temperature.
They are sensitive but highly non-linear.
Their sensitivity, reliability, ruggedness and ease of
use, has made them popular in research application,
but they are less commonly applied to industrial
applications, probably due to a lack on
interchangeability between manufactures.
Thermistors are available in large range of sizes and
base resistance values (resistance at 25C).
Interchangeability is possible to 0.05C although
1C is more common.
Thermistor construction
The most common form of the thermistor is a bead with two
wires attached. The bead diameter can range from about
0.5mm (0.02") to 5mm (0.2'').
Mechanically the thermistor is simple and strong, providing the
basis for a high reliability sensor.
Failure: The most likely failure mode is for the lead to separate
from the body of the thermistor - an unlikely event if the sensor
is mounted securely and with regard to likely vibration. The
sintered metal oxide material is prone to damage by moisture,
so are passivated by glass or epoxy encapsulation. If the
encapsulation is compromised and moisture penetrates, silver
migration under the dc bias can eventually cause shorting
between the electrodes.
Like other temperature sensors, thermistors are often mounted
in stainless steel tubes, to protect them from the environment in
which they are to operate. Grease is typically used to improve
the thermal contact between the sensor and the tube.

Specifications
Parameter Specification
Resistance at 25C 2252 ohms (100 to 1M available)
Measurement range -80 to +120C typical (250C max.)
Interchangeability (tolerance) 0.1 or 0.2C
Stability over 12 months
< 0.02C at 25C, < 0.25C at 100C
Time constant
< 1.0 seconds in oil, < 60 seconds in still air
self-heating
0.13 C/mW in oil, 1.0 C/mW in air
Coefficients
(see Linearization below)
a = 1.4733 x 10
-3
, b = 2.372 x 10
-3
,
c = 1.074 x 10
-7

Dimensions ellipsoid bead 2.5mm x 4mm
I/O Relation
The thermistor's resistance to temperature relationship to
temperature is given by two equations:
Steinhart & Hart equation:


where a, b and c are constants, ln() the natural logarithm, R is the
thermistors resistance in ohms and T is the absolute temperature
in Kelvins.
B Parameter Equation


Where B is a constant, R
0
is the resistance at temperature T
0
(K)



Hardware 'linearization'
Connect a resistor in parallel with the
thermistor.
The resistors value should equal the
thermistor's resistance at the mid-range
temperature.
The result is a significant reduction in
non-linearity, as the following diagram
illustrates:

The plot in the above diagram shows the impact of a 2200 ohm
resistor in parallel with a 2252 ohm (at 25C) thermistor. Note
the 5x scale factor difference for the 'linearized curve'. This
technique is recommended whenever thermistors are used with
simple measuring devices that have low ADC resolution
(i.e. <12 bit).
Applications
PTC thermistors
Current-limiting devices for circuit protection,
as replacements for fuses.
Timers in the degaussing coil circuit of CRT
displays and televisions.

NTC thermistors
Resistance thermometers
Automotive applications
Introduction
Also called resistance bulb etc..
Principle: As Temperature increases, resistivity increases
Standard:
Pure platinum, fully annealed and strain free
Temperature Measurement from liquid oxygen [-182.97 C] to the
melting point of antimony [+ 630.5 C ].
Range -250 to +500 C
Temperature coefficient: .003915 /C and .00385 /C
0.00385 has been adopted as the world and USA standard.)
Common Materials
Pure nickel has been widely used as a temperature-sensitive
element over the range of -700 C to +3000 C
Low cost and high temperature coefficient of resistivity.



Components
An element
A support or bobbin for the element
A protection tube or sheath
Connecting wires which extend from the
element to the termination end
A means of securing the connecting
wires to the termination end
A means of connecting it to the
resistance-measuring equipment.

Sensing element designs.
Materials
RTDs are typically manufactured from materials having a
positive temperature coefficient
Generally, the higher the resistance, the less affected the
RTD will be due to small resistance/voltage fluctuations in
the lead wires and circuit.

Material Usable Temperature Range Comments
Platinum -260C to1000 C In most applications
Nickel -200C to 430C
Copper -200C to 260C Linearity is not good
Balco(70% Ni 30% Fe) -100C to 230C Linearity is not good, cheap to
fabricate, high resistance
Tungsten -100C to 1200C
Basic Instrumentation
A simple Wheatstone bridge circuit with a reasonable high
impedance detector is recommended for reading out RTD
probes.

If the detector impedance is assumed infinite:

Rx = Probe resistance (at temperature x)
Rs = Balancing arm (equal to Rx at lowest temperature
which may be variable for zero set.)

Such a bridge is non-linear, when the probe undergoes any reasonable
temperature excursion. In the case of platinum wire, the ratio arms (R)
should be as large as possible (at least 10 times Rs) to minimize bridge
non-linearity.
To protect the probe and minimize the errors due to self-heating, an
operating current of 1 MA is recommended. This current can be controlled
by choice of R or L.
Greatest accuracy.
Exceptional stability and
repeatability
Absolute measurement
Linearity is better than
thermocouples
Higher signal-to-noise
ratio.
Not affected by
environmental
conditions
More expensive
Self heating
Requires a current
source
Response time may not
be fast enough for some
applications.
Larger size
Pros
Cons
Applications

Precision laboratory bridges
Digital ohmmeters
Recorders
Temperature Controllers
Digital readouts
Laboratory
Process Control
Electronic circuits and assemblies
Power supplies
Test Chambers
Oven Temperature
Injection Molders
HVACs
Motor and bearing Temperature
Industry
Respiratory
Culture
Incubator
Disposables
Medical
Comparison Chart I

Sensor

Signal Conditioning
Required

Accuracy

Sensitivity

Comparison


Thermocouple

Amplification
Filtering
Cold-Junction
Compensation


Good


Good

Self-powered
Inexpensive
Rugged
Large Temperature
Range

RTD

Amplification
Filtering
Current Excitation


Best


Better


Very Accurate
Very Stable


Thermistor


Amplification
Filtering
Current Excitation



Better



Best



High Resistance
Low Thermal Mass



Comparison Chart II
We would like to thank our teacher, Prof.
Subhash Chandra Kattimani for providing us
with an opportunity to make this presentation.


References

Thank
You
Nakul
08M129
Karthikeya
08M122
Shashank K S
08M142
Shravan H S
08M145
Siddharth
M H
08M148