In addition to the three laws of motion, Newton

formulated a law of great importance in mechanics,

the law of universal gravitation: Every particle in the
universe attracts every other resultant particles and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between their center of mass.

F = G m1 m2
r2

(1)

Where F is the force of attraction m1 and m2 are the

respective masses of the two particles, r is the
distance between their centers, and G is the
gravitational constant (6.67 x 10 -11 N.m2/kg2 )

For extended bodies having a large volume and

consisting of many particles, the gravitational
attraction is given in magnitude and direction by the
vector sum of the attractions by the individual
particles.

For any point outside a uniform sphere the result is the

same as if the whole mass were concentrated at the
center of the sphere. Thus, two such spheres attract as if
their masses were concentrated at their centers. Inside
the uniform spherical shell the resultant force is zero.

The Uniform Sphere

A body embedded in a solid sphere. The outer shell

where the radius is greater than r produces a resultant
gravitational force of zero. The resultant gravitational
force on the body is that due to the part of the sphere
inside the radius r.

For the gravitational force on this body we use equation

(1) the mass of the inner sphere of the radius r, and the
distance of the body from the center of the sphere: the
radius r.
From these considerations, we may conclude that the
gravitational force is a maximum at the surface of a
uniform sphere.

Inside the sphere the effective mass decreases as the

cube of the radius, while the distance decreases only
as the square of that same distance. Outside the
sphere the attracting mass does not change, but the
distance increases.

It remained for Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) to

measure in the laboratory the force of attraction
between two masses. This was a formidable task
because the force between any two masses which
could be conveniently handled in the laboratory
was extremely small and required great skill to
measure.

Since the force between the balls he used would

amount to only about 1/50,000,000 of their weight,
it was necessary to guard against any external factor
such as changes in temperature and air currents.

Thin wire

40 in
Wooden arm
Telescope

3 ft

2 in

8 in sphere
(rear)

3 ft

8 in sphere
(front)

Cavendish apparatus

Example
Two lead balls whose masses are 5.20 kg and 0.250
kg are placed with their centers 50.0 cm apart.
With what force do they attract with each other?

WORK, ENERGY, AND POWER

A significant difference between our civilization and that
of the ancients is our extensive utilization of energy
from sources other than the muscles of men and
animals. Many of the early advances in physics were
made by men who were trying to understand and
control sources of energy and apply them to men's
tasks. As the study of physics has advanced, energy has
continued to be a principal concern, playing such a
crucial role that physics has been called the "science of
energy and its transformations."

WORK
Commonly used in connection with widely different
activities, is restricted in physics to cases in which
there is a force and a displacement along the line of the
force.

When a force F moves through a displacement d and the

directions of these two vectors are not the same, the
work W is defined as the product of the magnitude of
the average force F and the displacement d cos in the
direction of the force.
W = (F cos ) (d)

In the special case where the force is constant and has

the same direction as the displacement, = 00, cos 00 =
1, and the work done by the force is the product of the
constant force and the distance.

Although work is the product of two vector quantities,

force and displacement, it is itself a scalar quantity.

Work done on a block

a

Work = Fd
d

F cos

d
Work = (F cos ) (d)

The product is usually denoted by the use of a dot

between the two vectors to indicate scalar
multiplication; thus
W=F.d

Work done in dragging a sled

Work = (F cos ) (d)

UNITS TO DESCRIBE WORK

System

Work

Force

Displaceme
nt

Mks

Joule (J)

newton

Meter

Cgs (abs)

erg

dyn

cm

British (grav)

footpound

pound

ft

Example
A box is pushed without acceleration 5.0 m along a
horizontal floor against a frictional force of 180 N. How
much work is done?

Example
What work is performed in dragging a sled 50 ft
horizontally without acceleration when the force of 60
lb is transmitted by a rope making an angle of 300 with
the ground?

ENERGY: THE ABILITY TO DO WORK

The property of a body or system of bodies by virtue of
which work can be performed is called energy (scalar
quantity).
Energy can exist in many forms and can be transformed
from one form to another.
Kinetic Energy the energy possessed by an object by
virtue of its motion
Potential Energy energy of position or configuration

When work is done on a body in the absence of frictional

forces, the work done is equal to the sum of the
increase in kinetic energy and the increase in potential
energy.

POTENTIAL ENERGY
The energy which bodies possess by virtue of position or
configuration or internal mechanisms.
Important forms: electrical, elastic, chemical, and
nuclear potential energy.
The most common form of potential energy is
gravitational potential energy.
PE = Wh = mgh

Example
A 40 lb stone is hoisted to the top of a building 100 ft
high. How much does its potential energy increase?

Example
A 40 lb stone is carried up a ramp, along a path making a
300 angle to the horizontal, to the top of a building 100
ft high. How much work is done? (Neglect friction)

In PE equation, we have assumed that when we elevate

an object a distance h which is small compared with
the radius of the earth, the gravitational force acting
on the object remains constant.
PE = GMm (1/R 1/r)
The potential energy of a body at high altitude with
respect to the surface of the earth.

Where, G universal gravitation

M mass of the earth
m mass of the body
R radius of the earth
r the distance of the body from the center of the earth
(note that r is not the altitude above the surface of the
earth)

Example
A 20 kg satellite is lifted to an orbit of 2.20 x 10 4 mi radius.
How much additional potential energy does it acquire
relative to the surface of the earth?

KINETIC ENERGY
The energy possessed by an object by virtue of its motion.
Consider a body with an initial speed vo on which a
steady unbalanced force F acts as it moves a distance d.
The body gains speed at rate given by a = F/m until it
reaches a final speed v1. The work done on the body by
the unbalanced force that accelerated it appears as a
change in kinetic energy.

Since F = ma, multiplying by d gives Fd = mad and

KE = Fd = mad
2ad = v12 v02
ad = 1/2 (v12 vo2)
KE = 1/2 m (v12 vo2) = 1/2 mv12 1/2 mvo2
KE = 1/2 mv2

Example
What is the kinetic energy of a 3000 lb automobile which
moving at 30 mi/h (44 ft/s) ?

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Energy is given to a body or system of bodies when work
is done upon it.
In this process, there is merely a transfer of energy from
one body to another.
In such transfer, no energy is created or destroyed; it
merely changes from one form to another.

TRANSFORMATIONS OF KINETIC
AND POTENTIAL ENERGY
Very frequently in mechanical systems at low speeds,
there is an interchange of kinetic and potential
energies.
If a ball is held at the top of the building, it possesses
potential energy. When it is released and falls, the
kinetic energy increases as the potential energy
decreases.

The sum of KE and PE remains constant and equal to the

potential energy at the top, if no energy is lost against
air resistance.

Example
A 300 lb automobile at rest at the top of an incline 30 ft
high and 300 ft long is released and rolls down the hill.
What is its speed at the bottom of the incline if the
average retarding force due to friction is 200 lb?

POWER
In science and technology the word power is restricted
to mean the time rate of doing work.
The average power is the work performed divided by the
time required for the performance.
P=

Since work is frequently done in a continuous fashion (or

energy is transported in a continuous stream), another
expression for power (work/time) is useful; thus

= F

s
t

P=

F . s

In SI system Work is measured in joules and time in

seconds, the unit of power is the watt

1 watt = 1 W = 1 J/s
The kilowatt hour (kWh) is often used as unit of work
1 kW = 1000 W = 1000 J/s and 1 h = 3600s
1 kilowatt-hour = 1 kWh = 3.6o x 106 J = 3.60 MJ

Since s/t represents the velocity of the body on which

the force is applied,
P=F.v
or in scalar terms
P = Fv cos

Example
By the use of the pulley a man raises a load of 50 kg to a
height of 15 m in 65 s. Find the average power required.

SIMPLE MACHINES
A machine is a device for applying energy to do work in a
way suitable for a given purpose. To do work, a
machine must receive energy from some source, and
the maximum work it does cannot exceed the energy it
receives.
Machines may receive energy in different forms, such as
mechanical energy, heat, electric energy, or chemical
energy.

Simple Machines
the energy is supplied by a single applied force and the
machine does useful work against a single resisting
force.

ACTUAL MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

(AMA)
The utility of the machine is chiefly that it enables a
person to perform some desirable work by changing
the amount, direction, or the point of application of
the force.

ACTUAL MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

(AMA)
The ratio of the output force Fo exerted by the machine on a load to the input force Fi exerted by the operator
on the machine.
AMA =
-

Fo
Fi

A machine that is designed to increase the force has an

AMA greater than 1; for example, a bench vise, a
crowbar or a block and tackle.
A machine designed to increase speed has an AMA less
than 1; for example, a catapult, a fly casting rod, the
gears in a hand operated beater, or the chain drive of a
bicycle.
A machine designed to simply change the direction of
the applied force has an AMA of 1; example is pulley

IDEAL MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

(IMA)
In any machine, because of the effects friction, the
useful work done by the machine is always less than
the work done on the machine.

Foso < Fisi

If we divide each member of the inequality by Fiso, we
obtain

Fo
Fi

si
< so

Definition of IMA
- the ratio of the distance si through which the input
force acts to the distance so through which the output
force acts.
IMA =

si
so

Since the forces move these distances in equal times, the ratio
si/so is also frequently called the velocity ratio.

Example
A pulley system is used to lift a 1000-lb block of stone a
distance of 10 ft by the application of a force of 150 lb
for a distance of 80 ft. Find the actual mechanical
advantage and the ideal mechanical advantage.

Problem solving activity

1) A 100 lb wooden box is pushed across a horizontal floor with a force
of 50 lb. The coefficient of kinetic friction is k = 0.40 (a) Find the
work done in pushing the box 60 ft. (b) How much work went into
overcoming friction and how much into accelerating the box?
2) An electric motor with an output of 15 kW provides power for the
elevator of six story building. If the total mass of the loaded elevator
is 1000 kg, what is the minimum time needed for it to rise the 30 m
from the ground floor to the top floor?
3) A swimmer develops an average power of 200 W as she covers 100 m
in 80.0 s. What is the resistive force exerted by the water on her?

4) What is the power output of the engine of a 1200 kg car if the car can
go from 25 km/h to 100 km/h in 12 s?
5) Compare the potential energy of a 1200 kg car at the top of a hill 30 m
high with its kinetic energy when moving at 100 km/h.