Unit 2 Blood

UNIT 2
The Blood
Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning
FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD

To transport materials to and from cells
Oxygen and carbon dioxide

Nutrients
Hormones
Immune system components
Waste products
Functions of Blood
Transport of dissolved substances
Regulation of pH and ions
Restriction of fluid losses at injury sites
Defense against toxins and pathogens
Stabilization of body temperature
Blood
Represents about 8% of total body weight
Average volume
5 liters in women
5.5 liters in men
Consists of three types of specialized cellular elements
suspended in plasma (liquid portion of blood)
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells
Important in O2 transport
Leukocytes
White blood cells

Immune systems mobile defense units
Platelets
Cell fragments
Important in hemostasis
Chapter 11 The Blood

Blood Composition

Physical Characteristics of Blood

Whole Blood
Plasma
Fluid consisting of:
water
dissolved plasma proteins
other solutes
Formed elements
All cells and solids
Plasma
Plasma proteins
Compose 6% to 8% of plasmas total weight
Three groups of plasma proteins
Albumins
Most abundant plasma proteins
Globulins
Three subclasses
Alpha ()
Beta ()
Gamma ()
Fibrinogen
Key factor in blood clotting

Plasma
Constituent
Functions
Water (makes up
90% of plasma)
Transport medium, carries heat
Electrolytes
Membrane excitability; osmotic distribution of fluid between

ECF and ICF; buffer pH changes
Nutrients, wastes,
gases, hormones
Transported in blood; blood gas CO2 plays role in acidbase balance
Plasma proteins
In general, exert an osmotic effect important in distribution

of ECF between vascular and interstitial compartments;
buffer pH changes
Albumins
Transport many substances; contribute most to colloid

osmotic pressure
Alpha and beta

globulins
Transport many water-insoluble substances; clotting

factors; inactive precursor molecules
Gamma globulins
Antibodies
Fibrinogen
Inactive precursor for the fibrin meshwork of a clot

Physical Characteristics of Blood

Three Types of Formed Elements
Red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes
Transport oxygen
White blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes

Part of the immune system
Platelets
Cell fragments involved in clotting
Red Blood Cells
Figure 192ac The Anatomy of Red Blood Cells
Erythrocytes
Contain no nucleus, organelles, or ribosomes
Structure is well suited to main function of O2 transport
in blood
Biconcave discs
Provides larger SA for diffusion of O2 across the membrane
Thinness of cell enables O2 to diffuse rapidly between the
exterior and innermost regions of the cell
Flexible membrane
Allows RBCs to travel through narrow capillaries without
rupturing in the process

Hemoglobin
Found only in red blood cells
Pigment containing iron
Appears reddish when oxygenated

Appears bluish when deoxygenated
Molecule consists of two parts
Globin portion
Protein composed of four highly folded polypeptide
chains
Heme groups
Four iron-containing nonprotein groups
Each is bound to one of the polypeptides
Hemoglobin Structure

Haemoglobin
Primary role is to carry O2
OXYHAEMOGLOBIN
Also combines with

Carbon dioxide
Forms carbaminohaemoglobin
Acidic hydrogen-ion portion (H+) of ionized
carbonic acid
Carbon monoxide
Nitric oxide

Abnormal Haemoglobin
Thalassemia
Inability to produce a and b chains Hb
RBC
production decreases
Fragile
Short lived
Oxygen carrying capacity diminished
Sickle Cell
Mutation of b chain Hb
The RBC and Hb appears normal
when defective Hb gives up its O2
The Hb react with each other
making the cell rigid and sickle shaped
Red Blood Cells
Figure 194 Sickling in Red Blood Cells
Erythrocyte Enzymes
Glycolytic enzymes
Necessary for generating energy needed to fuel
active transport mechanisms involved in
maintaining proper ionic concentrations within cell
Rely on glycolysis for ATP formation

Erythrocyte Enzymes
Carbonic anhydrase
Critical in CO2 transport
Catalyzes reaction that leads to conversion of
metabolically produced CO2 into bicarbonate ion
(HCO3-)
Primary form in which CO2 is transported in blood

Erythropoiesis
Erythrocyte production
RBCs survive about 120 days
Spleen removes most of old erythrocytes from
circulation
Must be replaced at rate of 2 million to 3 million

cells/second
Erythropoiesis occurs in bone marrow
Pluripotent stem cells in red bone marrow
differentiate into the different types of blood cells
Erythropoiesis
Occurs only in myeloid tissue (red bone marrow) in
adults
Stem cells mature to become RBCs
Hemocytoblasts
Stem cells in myeloid tissue divide to produce
Myeloid stem cells: become RBCs, some WBCs
Lymphoid stem cells: become lymphocytes
Red Blood Cells Maturation

Myeloid stem cell destined to be RBC differentiate
Proerythroblast
Erythroblasts
Syn. Hb
Reticulocyte
80% Hb of normal cell
No nucleus
Mature RBC
Loses RNA
Red Blood Cells
Regulation of Erythropoiesis
Building red blood cells requires
Amino acids
Iron
Vitamins B12, B6, and folic acid:
pernicious anemia
low RBC production
due to unavailability of vitamin B12
Erythropoesis
Stimulating Hormones
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Formed by Kidney and Liver
Secreted when peripheral tissues experience hypoxia
Anaemia
Decrease blood to Kidneys
Disease or high altitude decrease O2 to lungs
Resp. Surface of lungs damaged
Control of Erythropoiesis

Red Blood Cells

RBC Formation and Turnover
1% of circulating RBCs wear out per day
About 3 million RBCs per second
Macrophages of liver, spleen, and bone marrow

Monitor RBCs
Engulf RBCs before membranes rupture (hemolyze)
Red Blood Cells

Hemoglobin Conversion and Recycling
Phagocytes break hemoglobin into components
Globular proteins to amino acids
Heme to biliverdin
Iron
Heme excreted via Kidneys
Red Blood Cells

Iron Recycling
Free iron toxic to cell

Iron removed from heme leaving biliverdin
Binds to transport proteins

Circulated to other RBC
Removed to liver and spleen
Red Blood Cells

Breakdown of Biliverdin
Biliverdin (green) is converted to bilirubin
(yellow)
Bilirubin is:
Excreted by liver (bile)
converted by intestinal bacteria to urobilins
Excreted via Kidneys
Stored in skin
jaundice is caused by bilirubin buildup
Red Blood Cells
Figure 195 Recycling of Red Blood Cell Components
Anemia
Refers to a below-normal O2-carrying capacity of the
blood
Characterized by low hematocrit
Causes of anemia
Nutritional anemia
Pernicious anemia
Aplastic anemia
Renal anemia
Hemorrhagic anemia
Hemolytic anemia
Polycythemia
Characterized by too many circulating RBCs and
elevated hematocrit
Two general types
Primary polycythemia
Caused by tumorlike condition of bone marrow
Erythropoiesis proceeds at uncontrolled rate

Polycythemia
Secondary polycythemia
Erythropoietin-induced adaptive mechanism to
improve bloods oxygen-carrying capacity in
response to prolonged reduced oxygen delivery
to the tissues
Occurs normally in people living at high altitudes
Sometimes called relative polycythemia

Hematocrit Under Various Conditions

Blood Typing
Are cell surface proteins that identify cells to
immune system
Normal cells are ignored and foreign cells
attacked
Blood types
Are genetically determined
By presence or absence of RBC surface antigens A,
B, Rh (or D)
Blood Typing
Four Basic Blood Types
A (surface antigen A)
B (surface antigen B)
AB (antigens A and B)
O (neither A nor B)
Cell surface Antigens also called Agglutinogens
Blood Typing
Blood Plasma Antibodies
Type A
Type B antibodies
Type B
Type A antibodies
Type O
Both A and B antibodies
Type AB
Neither A nor B antibodies
Plasma Antibodies also called Agglutinins
Blood Typing
Blood Typing
Plasma antibodies
attack and agglutinate (clump) foreign antigens
Blood Typing
The Rh Factor
Also called D antigen
Either Rh positive (Rh+) or Rh negative (Rh-)
Only sensitized Rh- blood has anti-Rh antibodies
Blood Typing
Blood Typing
Figure 199 Rh Factors and Pregnancy
Blood Typing
Cross-Reactions in Transfusions
Plasma antibody meets its specific surface antigen
Blood will agglutinate and hemolyze
Occur if donor and recipient blood types not
compatible
O- universal Donor
Blood Typing
Figure 197b Blood Types and Cross-Reactions
Blood Typing
White Blood Cells

Also called leukocytes
Do not have hemoglobin

Have nuclei and other organelles
White Blood Cells

WBC Circulation and Movement
Most WBCs in
Connective tissue proper
Lymphoid system organs
Small numbers in blood

5000 to 10,000 per microliter
White Blood Cells

WBC Circulation and Movement
Characteristics of circulating WBCs
Can migrate out of bloodstream
diapedesis
Have amoeboid movement
Attracted to chemical stimuli (positive chemotaxis)
Some are phagocytic:
neutrophils, eosinophils, and monocytes
Leukocytes
White blood cells or WBCs
Mobile units of bodys immune defense system
Immune system
Made up of leukocytes, their derivatives, and
variety of plasma proteins

Recognizes and destroys or neutralizes materials
within body that are foreign to normal self

Leukocytes
Functions
Defends against invading pathogens
Identifies and destroys cancer cells that arise in
body
Functions as a cleanup crew that removes
worn-out cells and tissue debris

Leukocytes
Somewhat larger than erythrocytes
Five different types of circulating leukocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Monocytes
Lymphocytes

Leukocytes
Polymorphonuclear
Neutrophils
Granules are neutral and

show no dye preference
5070% of circulating WBCs
Eosinophils
Granules have an affinity for

the red dye eosin
Basophils
Granules have an affinity for

a basic blue dye
< 1% of circulating WBCs
Mononuclear
Agranulocytes (singlenucleus; cells lacking
granules)
Monocytes
Have oval or kidney-shaped

nucleus
2030% of circulating
WBCs
Lymphocytes
granulocytes (manyshaped nucleus; granulecontaining cells)
Smallest of the leukocytes;

usually have large spherical
nucleus that occupies most
of the cell
White Blood Cells
Figure 1910a-c White Blood Cells
White Blood Cells
Figure 1910d-e White Blood Cells
Leukocytes
Originate from same
undifferentiated multi-potent stem cells in red
bone marrow
produced only in bone marrow
Granulocytes and monocytes

Most new lymphocytes are actually produced by
Lymphocytes in lymphoid tissues

such as lymph nodes and tonsils
Neutrophils
Phagocytic specialists
Release web of extracellular fibers called neutrophil
extracellular traps (NETs) that contain bacteriakilling chemicals
Can also destroy bacteria by phagocytosis

Functions
First defenders on scene of bacterial invasion
Very important in inflammatory responses
Scavenge to clean up debris

Eosinophils
Increase in circulating eosinophils (eosinophilia) is
associated with
Allergic conditions such as asthma and hay fever
Internal parasite infestations, such as worms
Attach to worm and secrete substances to kill it

Basophils
Least numerous
Similar structurally and functionally to mast cells
Synthesize and store
Histamine
Release is important in allergic reactions
Heparin

Heparin
Speeds up removal of fat particles from blood after
fatty meal
Can also prevent clotting of blood samples drawn for
chemical analysis
Used extensively as anticoagulant drug

Monocytes
Emerge from bone marrow while still immature and
circulate for day or two before settling down in
various tissues in body
Mature and enlarge in resident tissue and become
known as macrophages
Life span can range from several months to years

Lymphocytes
Provide immune defense against targets for which they are
specifically programmed
Live about 100 to 300 days

Lymphocytes
B lymphocytes
Produce antibodies
Responsible to antibody-mediated or humoral immunity
T lymphocytes
Do not produce antibodies

Directly destroy specific target cells by releasing
chemicals that punch holes in the victim cell (cellmediated immunity)
Target cells include body cells invaded by viruses and
cancer cells

Platelets
Thrombocytes
Cell fragments shed from megakaryocytes
Lack nuclei
Have organelles and cytosolic enzymes for generating
energy and synthesizing secretory products
High concentrations of actin and myosin
Remain functional for an average of 10 days

White Blood Cells

WBC Disorders
Leukopenia
Abnormally low WBC count
Leukocytosis
Abnormally high WBC count
Leukemia
Extremely high WBC count
Platelets
Removed from circulation by tissue macrophages
Do not leave blood as WBCs do
About are stored in blood-filled spaces in spleen
Released when needed by sympathetically induced
splenic contraction
Thrombopoietin
Hormone produced by liver increases number of
megakaryocytes and therefore increases platelet
production
Hemopoiesis

Immune Surveillance Against Cancer
Chapter 12 The Body Defenses


Unit 2 Blood

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UNIT 2

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD

Oxygen and carbon dioxide

Transport of dissolved substances

Regulation of pH and ions

Restriction of fluid losses at injury sites

Defense against toxins and pathogens

Stabilization of body temperature

White blood cells

Chapter 11 The Blood

Chapter 11 The Blood

Physical Characteristics of Blood

Chapter 11 The Blood

Transport medium, carries heat

Membrane excitability; osmotic distribution of fluid between

Transported in blood; blood gas CO2 plays role in acidbase balance

In general, exert an osmotic effect important in distribution

Transport many substances; contribute most to colloid

Alpha and beta

Transport many water-insoluble substances; clotting

Inactive precursor for the fibrin meshwork of a clot

Physical Characteristics of Blood

White blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes

Red Blood Cells

Figure 192ac The Anatomy of Red Blood Cells

Chapter 11 The Blood

Appears reddish when oxygenated

Chapter 11 The Blood

Also combines with

Acidic hydrogen-ion portion (H+) of ionized

Chapter 11 The Blood

Red Blood Cells

Figure 194 Sickling in Red Blood Cells

Rely on glycolysis for ATP formation

Chapter 11 The Blood

Chapter 11 The Blood

Must be replaced at rate of 2 million to 3 million

Red Blood Cells Maturation

Red Blood Cells

due to unavailability of vitamin B12

Chapter 11 The Blood

Red Blood Cells

Macrophages of liver, spleen, and bone marrow

Red Blood Cells

Heme excreted via Kidneys

Red Blood Cells

Free iron toxic to cell

Binds to transport proteins

Red Blood Cells

Red Blood Cells

Figure 195 Recycling of Red Blood Cell Components

Erythropoiesis proceeds at uncontrolled rate

Chapter 11 The Blood

Sometimes called relative polycythemia

Hematocrit Under Various Conditions

Chapter 11 The Blood

Cell surface Antigens also called Agglutinogens

Plasma Antibodies also called Agglutinins

Figure 199 Rh Factors and Pregnancy

Figure 197b Blood Types and Cross-Reactions

White Blood Cells

Do not have hemoglobin