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20
The Heart
Veins
Carry blood to heart
Capillaries
Networks between arteries and veins
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Right ventricle
Pumps blood to pulmonary circuit
Left atrium
Collects blood from pulmonary circuit
Left ventricle
Pumps blood to systemic circuit
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Figure 202c
Visceral pericardium
Inner layer of pericardium
Figure 202c
Sulci
Coronary sulcus: divides atria and ventricles
Anterior interventricular sulcus and posterior
interventricular sulcus:
separate left and right ventricles
contain blood vessels of cardiac muscle
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Secured by desmosomes
Linked by gap junctions
Convey force of contraction
Propagate action potentials
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
valves
Permit blood flow in one direction: atria to ventricles
Coronary sinus
Cardiac veins return blood to coronary sinus
Coronary sinus opens into right atrium
septum
Connects the two atria
Seals off at birth, forming fossa ovalis
Figure 208
Figure 208
Arterial Anastomoses
Interconnect anterior and posterior
interventricular arteries
Stabilize blood supply to cardiac muscle
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Circulatory System
Heart
Dual pump
Right and left sides of heart function as two
separate pumps
rate
branches
Which conduct to Purkinje fibers (Step 4)
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Record of overall spread of electrical activity through heart
Represents
Records part of electrical activity induced in body fluids by
cardiac impulse that reaches body surface
Not direct recording of actual electrical activity of heart
QRS complex
Ventricles depolarize
T wave
Ventricles repolarize
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QT interval
From ventricular depolarization
To ventricular repolarization
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
QRS complex
Ventricles depolarize
T wave
Ventricles repolarize
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
QT interval
From ventricular depolarization
To ventricular repolarization
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Contractions
20% of calcium ions required for a contraction
Calcium ions enter plasma membrane during plateau phase
reticulum
Contractions
As slow calcium channels close
Intracellular Ca2+ is absorbed by the SR
Or pumped out of cell
glucose
Oxygen from circulating hemoglobin
Cardiac muscles store oxygen in myoglobin
diastole
Filling ventricles
AV valves close
AV valves shut
5. Ventricular ejection
of end-diastolic volume
7. Ventricular diastole
AV valves open
S2
Loud sounds
Produced by semilunar valves
S3, S4
Soft sounds
Blood flow into ventricles and atrial contraction
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Cardiodynamics
The movement and force generated by cardiac
contractions
End-diastolic volume (EDV)
End-systolic volume (ESV)
Ejection fraction
The percentage of EDV represented by SV
Cardiodynamics
Cardiodynamics
Cardiac Output
CO = HR X SV
CO = cardiac output (mL/min)
HR = heart rate (beats/min)
Cardiodynamics
Factors Affecting Cardiac Output
Cardiac output
Adjusted by changes in heart rate or stroke volume
Heart rate
Adjusted by autonomic nervous system or hormones
Stroke volume
Adjusted by changing EDV or ESV
Cardiodynamics
Cardiodynamics
Factors Affecting the Heart Rate
Autonomic innervation
Cardiac plexuses: innervate heart
Vagus nerves (X): carry parasympathetic preganglionic fibers
Cardiodynamics
Autonomic Innervation
Cardiac reflexes
Cardiac centers monitor:
blood pressure (baroreceptors)
arterial oxygen and carbon dioxide levels
(chemoreceptors)
Cardiodynamics
Cardiodynamics
Effects on the SA Node
Sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation
Greatest at SA node (heart rate)
NE (sympathetic stimulation)
Speeds the heart
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Cardiodynamics
Atrial Reflex
Also called Bainbridge reflex
Adjusts heart rate in response to venous
return
Stretch receptors in right atrium
Trigger increase in heart rate
Through increased sympathetic activity
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Cardiodynamics
Hormonal Effects on Heart Rate
Increase heart rate (by sympathetic
stimulation of SA node)
Epinephrine (E)
Norepinephrine (NE)
Thyroid hormone
Cardiodynamics
Factors Affecting the Stroke Volume
The EDV: amount of blood a ventricle contains at the
end of diastole
Filling time:
duration of ventricular diastole
Venous return:
rate of blood flow during ventricular diastole
Cardiodynamics
Preload
The degree of ventricular stretching during
ventricular diastole
tension
Cardiodynamics
The EDV and Stroke Volume
At rest
EDV is low
Myocardium stretches less
With exercise
EDV increases
Myocardium stretches more
Stroke volume increases
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Cardiodynamics
The FrankStarling Principle
As EDV increases, stroke volume increases
Physical Limits
Ventricular expansion is limited by
Myocardial connective tissue
The cardiac (fibrous) skeleton
The pericardial sac
Cardiodynamics
End-Systolic Volume (ESV)
The amount of blood that remains in the
ventricle at the end of ventricular systole is
the ESV
Cardiodynamics
Three Factors That Affect ESV
Preload
Ventricular stretching during diastole
Contractility
Force produced during contraction, at a given preload
Afterload
Tension the ventricle produces to open the semilunar valve
and eject blood
Cardiodynamics
Contractility
Is affected by
Autonomic activity
Hormones
Cardiodynamics
Effects of Autonomic Activity on Contractility
Sympathetic stimulation
NE released by postganglionic fibers of cardiac nerves
Epinephrine and NE released by suprarenal (adrenal)
medullae
Causes ventricles to contract with more force
Increases ejection fraction and decreases ESV
Cardiodynamics
Effects of Autonomic Activity on
Contractility
Parasympathetic activity
Acetylcholine released by vagus nerves
Reduces force of cardiac contractions
Cardiodynamics
Hormones
Many hormones affect heart contraction
Pharmaceutical drugs mimic hormone actions
Stimulate or block beta receptors
Affect calcium ions (e.g., calcium channel
blockers)
Cardiodynamics
Afterload
Is increased by any factor that restricts arterial
blood flow
As afterload increases, stroke volume
decreases
Cardiodynamics
Heart Rate Control Factors
Autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
Circulating hormones
Venous return and stretch receptors
Cardiodynamics
Stroke Volume Control Factors
EDV
Filling time
Rate of venous return
ESV
Preload
Contractility
Afterload
Cardiodynamics
Cardiac Reserve
The difference between resting and maximal
cardiac output
Cardiodynamics
The Heart and Cardiovascular System
Cardiovascular regulation
Ensures adequate circulation to body tissues
Cardiovascular centers
Control heart and peripheral blood vessels