SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

An Introduction
Research is a careful study of a
subject especially to discover new facts
or information about it .
We Observe and/or Relate phenomena (both in physical
and social sciences) and fix up belief on their behavior.
Such beliefs on the behavior of phenomena could be
fixed up by a common man and a scientist.

But their ways are different.

Commonsense and scientific approach in

fixing belief on behavior of phenomena
A common man and the scientist both fix up
beliefs and test hypotheses relating to behavior
of phenomena: Consider the following:
Women are more religious than men in India
Brand preference and economic status are positively
related.
People from a caste or ethnic group are enterprising.
Investment in company X is profitable.
Sales and advertizing expenditures are +ly related
These could be beliefs based on commonsense.

Science and commonsense differ in a

variety of ways in fixing beliefs.
Commonsense observes and relates
variables in an unsystematic i.e.
unorganized & unplanned way.
It often generalizes behavior of
phenomena in an uncontrolled way.
It tests hypotheses in a selective way i.e .it
selects evidences and gives explanation
simply because it is consistent with his
hypothesis.

But the Scientist's approach is different in

fixing beliefs on the behavior of phenomena
Scientific approach is a systematically built
theoretical structure ( with a structured design
and a plan of investigation).
It tests beliefs/theories empirically and in a
controlled condition, where ever necessary.
A scientist knowing the selection tendency of
human being to be a common psychological
phenomenon, carefully guards his research
against his own preconception and predilections
(liking).

The Scientist's approach is different(Contd)

Obvious relationships are empirically tested
and established (for decision making) in a
scientific approach.

Demand is inversely related to price.

Advertising expenditure & sale volume are

positively related.

Brand loyalty & economic status are related

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
- A DEFINITION
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IS DEFINED AS A

SYSTEMATIC, CONTROLLED, EMPIRICAL AND

CRITICAL INVESTIGATION OF HYPOTHETICAL
PROPOSITIONS ABOUT PRESUMED RELATIONS
AMONGST OBSERVED PHENOMENA.
SUBJECTIVE BELIEFS ARE CHECKED AGAINST

OBJECTIVE REALITY

Aim of Scientific Research

Aim of scientific research is basically
theorizing the behavior/relationship
between variables/phenomena.
Scientific Research establishes general
laws covering the behavior of empirical
events and enables us to connect together
our knowledge of separately known events
or explain the relationship between
variables and make reliable predictions.

SCIENTIFIC STATUS OF A SCIENCE

It depends on the degree and accuracy of the four
aspects mentioned in the definition of scientific
research.
Systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
This fixes up limits with respect to exact and inexact
sciences
Physical sciences such as physics, chemistry are
more exact than social sciences such as sociology,
psychology, economics, management etc.
However, all the sciences differ in degree with
respect to the characteristic of exactness.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

In social science we study the behavior of
social phenomena and the behavior of
human being.
Questions arises here is
Can human behavior be subjected to
scientific enquiry ?
Thus, we examine the characteristics of
social sciences and relate them to the four
aspects of scientific research.

1. Social scientists like the physical scientists

seek to discover regularity and order in social

behavior
This is done through observations and measurement
Observation of regularities in the behavior of
human beings and socio-economic variables in the
market.
ii) Measurement of social behavior of human beings /
socio-economic and market related variables.
i)

(i) Discovering/observing regularities and framing theories in

social sciences. Consider the following:
An object falling to earth, water flowing downstream,H2 O is
water, application of fertilizer results in a good crop.
Women are more religious than men, advertising and sale
volumes are related, EPS is positively related to profit, buying a
share of company X is profitable.
Behavior of phenomena in physical sciences are more regular
than social sciences
Regularities in social science represent probabilistic pattern
since they are more subjectivity in nature.

(ii) Measurement
Qualitative and quantitative variables are
observed and related in social sciences e.g.
Income, Profits, Expenditure, Sales Revenue
Intelligence, Economic Status , Brand loyalty
etc
These could be measured with specific
methods/ways and used in the analysis.
However, a systematic measurement must be
judged on the basis of its utility rather than
absolute truth in social sciences.

2. Logical reasoning in physical and social

sciences.
Reasoning: deductive and inductive
Deductive reasoning is a process from general
principle to specific instances.
Inductive reasoning is a process from specific
observations to general principles.
Deductive method is stronger in having theoretical
support whereas, inductive method is stronger in
empirical support.
A cyclical process of induction and deduction are
followed in both the sciences with respect to
theorizing behavior/phenomena.
Theories are tested and restated with the use of
these processes.

3.Determinism in social science

Consider the following phenomena in the
economy.
There is a steady growth of FDI in India after 1990s
BSE sensex is falling over the last few months.
Cost of production of X is increasing
Increase in adv expenditure has not resulted in
increase in the market share of a product
Price rise of car over the last few years has not been
associated with a decline in demand etc.
A mobile manufacturing company has lost it market
share recently.

Nothing just happens

All events have antecedent causes or a priori reasons

There could be single or multiple causes for

all the phenomena.
Very often the causes leading to the
occurrence of an event/ phenomenon are
known as determinants .
There is a probabilistic determinism in the
behavior of socio-economic phenomena.
This refers to the Theory of Causation in the
philosophy of science.

4. Generalization
A social scientist begins to explain a limited range of

social behavior or behavior of a limited sub-set of

population and then normally extends his/her
findings to explain the behavior of other sub-sets (i.e.
S/he generalizes the behavior of variables ).
The process of induction is useful in generalization.
The scientist is not interested in specific observation . He

generalizes the behavior of phenomena and frames theory.

For example:
A researcher is less interested in the individual
response to a price change; rather he is interested in
the general behavior of the consumers.
A discovery of a certain behavior of a group of
people is less useful than that has universal
application.
However, generalization in social science is related to
probabilistic determinism.
Hypothesis are tested with F, t, Chi-square and other
statistical measures to arrive at generalization.

5. Parsimony
Multiple causation suggests that social/economic phenomena

are explained using multivariate models where several

variables are used.
Additional variables increase explanatory power of a model (in

a dependency relationship), but it also complicates the

relationship (model) and makes estimation difficult.
Use of more variables decreases generalizability since different

variables may have different impact on different population

sub-set.

Consider the following

Expenditure of H.H.s on a Commodity may depend on
the following:
Income of the households, Number of family members,
Cost of living, Standard of living, Price of the
commodity, Location of H.H.. Season, Attitude of a
person, Demonstration effect, Management of the house
hold, Durability of the product, Price of substitute,
Cultural back ground ,Proximity to market, Sex ratio in
the h.hs. Media advertisement for the product, Price of
complimentary goods. Quantity of consumption etc.
etc.

Are all the variables equally important?

One has to identify the more or less relevant
variables with a priori reasoning.
A judicious decision is warranted in
explaining socio-economic behavior.
Parsimony in social science refers to more
understanding from least variables
More understanding often refers to explanatory
power in a dependency relationship

6. Specificity: It refers to the specification of

methods of measurement of variables
Conceptualization of variables and use of proxy
variables
Conceptualizing and measuring of variables differs
in physical and social sciences e.g.
- acceleration, force, gravitation in physical sciences.
Income, profits, expenditure on the one hand and
Industrialization, brand preference, spendthriftness,
literacy, Intelligence. religiosity etc on the other.
We use proxy variables in social sciences when we do
not have a set measuring standard.

7. Empirical verification
Formulation of general laws or models are not useful unless they can

be verified through collection and manipulation of data.

Explanation of models must make sense and they must correspond to
what is being actually studied/observed. E.g.
Expenditure = f ( Income)
Brand Loyalty = f (Awareness and Economic Status)
Economic Development = f (Industrialization)
Relationship is meaningless unless variables are specified and data
could be collected on them.

8. Inter-subjectivity
SUBJECTIVITY DIFFERES BETWEEN SOCIAL
SCIENTISTS.

Inter-subjectivity refers to situations in which different

social scientists will arrive at different conclusions using
their own ideas and perceptions on variables and their
relationships. But when the study is replicated using a
reported design and methodology the ideas may
converge.
If it is not, then there is a paradigm shift or change in
the theory.

9. Modifications/Restatement of Theories
Physical and social sciences are open to countless

modification and restatement of theories.

Recent research in physics ( Atoms Large Hadron Collider)
New research findings in medical sciences & other physical
sciences.
Large number of modifications/restatement of in the theories of
social sciences such as psycholology,economics,management.

Scientific Research and Social Sciences

A Concluding Remark
The characteristics of social science suggest that
scientific research is possible in the field of social
sciences to some extent when the four aspects of
scientific research are considered.
Subjective beliefs are checked against objective reality in

social science but the process and out come are less
exact as compared to the physical sciences.
The degree of exactness differs with respect to the

nature of different social sciences such as economics,

management, psychology, education, sociology,
philosophy etc.