HUMAN HEALTH &

DISEASE

HEALTH
It is a complete state of physical, mental and social

being.
FACTORS AFFECTING HEALTH.
1.Genetic Disorders.
2.Infections.
3.Life style and habits.

Significance of health
1. It increases the capacity and efficiency to do work.
2.It decrease the IMR and MMR.

Factors affecting good health

1.Awareness of diseases and their effect.

2.Vaccination against infectious diseases.
3.Proper disposal of waste and excreta.
4.Control of vectors
5.Maintenance of hygienic food and water resources.

DISEAESES
When functioning of one or more systems of body is

adversely affected and is associated with signs and

symptoms, it is called diseased condition.

TYPES OF DISEASES
INFECTIOUS DISEASES-Diseases which are easily

transmitted from one person to another it is called

infectious diseases ex. AIDS,COLD.
Non-infectious diseases- DISEASES-Diseases which
are not transmitted from one person to another it is
called infectious diseases ex. CANCER, DIABETICS.

EFFECT OF PATHOGEN
1.Pathogen enter the body by various means, multiply

and interfere with normal vital activities.

2.Pathogen cause morphological and functional
damage.
3.Pathogen are adapted to the environment of host. ex.
It can survive in stomach at low pH.

Common infectious diseases

TYPHOID.
Causative organism-Salmonella typhi.(Bacterium).
Mode of transmission-It enters into small intestine

through contaminated food and water and migrate to

other organs through blood.
Typhoid can be diagnosed by widal test.
Typhoid was named after the name of typhoid Mary, who
was cook and spread typhoid for several years.

SYMPTOMS OF TYPHOID.

1.Sustained high fever.

2.Stomach pain.
3.Weakness.
4.Constipation.
5.Headache.
6.Loss of appetite.
7.Intestinal perforation.

PNEUMONIA
Causative organism-Streptococcus pneumoniae and

Haemophilus influenza.
Mode of transmission- Its infection spreads by
inhaling the droplets released by infected person or
even by sharing glasses and utensils of infected
person

SYMPTOMSN OF PNEUMONIAE
1. Fever with chills.
2. Cough.
3.Lips and finger nails turn grey to blue.

COLD

Causative organism-Rhino viruses.

Mode of transmission-Droplet infection.
Symptoms.
1.Sore throat
2.Hoarseness.
3. Cough and head ache.
4.Tiredness

MALARIA
Causative organism-It is a protozoan disease caused

by various species of plasmodium

Ex. P. vivax, P.malariae,P. falciparum, P.ovale.
P. falciparum causes malignant malaria which is
lethal.
Vector-Anopheles female mosquito.

LIFE CYCLE OF MALARIA

1. Plasmodium enters human blood as sporozoite

through the bite of infected female anopheles

mosquito.
2. Sporozoites reach liver and blood, where they
reproduce asexually so that cells burst. It leads to
fever due to release of toxic substance HAEMOZOIN.
3.Released parasites infect new RBCs.

 4. Sexual stages of parasite are completed in human

host so that when Anopheles bites human, it takes up

gametocytes along with blood.
5. Gametcytes fertilize in the intestine of mosquito
and forms sporozoites.
6. Sporozoites escape from the mosquitoes intestine to
salivary gland for storage..
So malarial parasite requires two hosts to complete its
life cycle.(ie. Man and female Anopheles mosquito)

AMOEBIASIS
Causative organism- A protozoan parasite Entamoeba

histolytica.
Mode of transmission--House fly act as carrier to
transmit parasites from faeces of infected person to
food.
Symptoms.
1.Constipation.
2.Abdominal pain and cramps.
3.Stools with blood excessive mucous and blood clots.

ASCARIASIS
Causative organism- A parasitic helminth Ascaris(

round worm).
Mode of transmission- It transmitted from faeces of
infected persons to healthy persons by contaminated
water ,vegetable etc

SYMPTOMS

1.Internal bleeding.
2.Muscular pain.
3.Fever.
4.Anaemia.
5.Blockage of intestinal passage.

FILARIASIS (ELEPHANTIASIS)
Causative organism-An helminth, Wucheria

bancrofti,W. malayi.
Mode of transmission - It is transmitted to healthy
person through bite by female mosquito

SYMPTOMS
1.

RINGWORM
Causative organism-It is caused by fungal genera.
Ex. Microsporum , Trichophyton, Epidermophyton.
Mode of transmission-Ringworms are transmitted

from soil or towels cloths or comb of infected

individuals.
Symptoms 1. Appearance of dry scaly lesions on skin ,nails and
scalp.
2.Intense itching.
3.Heat and moisture help fungi to grow.

PEVENTION OF INFECTIOUS
DISEASES
Personal hygiene 1.Keeping the body clean.
2.Using clean drinking water, food,

vegetetables and fruit.

3.Close contact with infected persons and
their belongings should be avoided.

 Public hygiene 1.Proper disposal of waste and excreta.

3 .Periodic cleaning and disinfection of water
reservoirs.
4.Vectors and their breeding places should be

controlled.
5. Using mosquito nets or introducing fishes like
Gambusia in ponds.
6. Spray insecticides.
7.Vaccination and immunization .
Ex. Polio ,Diphtheria, Pneumonia and Tetanus
have been controlled by vaccines. Small pox
completely eradicated.

IMMUNITY

Types of immunity.
1. INNATE IMMUNITY.
a. It is present by birth.
b. The immunity remains throughout life.
c. Contact with pathogen or its antigen is not
essential.
Ability of the body to fight with disease causing
organisms by immune system is called immunity.
d. It is inheritable.
e. It protect the individuals from contraction of
diseases of other organisms.

 2.ACQUIRED IMMUNITY.
a. It develops during the life time.
b. It can be short lived or life long.
c . Contact with pathogen or its antigen is

essential.
d. It is not inheritable.
e. It protect the individuals from pathogens
present of others members of the same
species.

 Acquired immunity is a non specific type of

defense. consists of the following types of

barriers.
1.Physical barriers.
Ex. Skin, mucus coating of epithelium lining
of respiratory, gastrointestinal and
urinogenetal tracts , It helps to trap
microbes.
2.Physiological barriers.
Ex. Acid in stomach, saliva in mouth, tears
from eyes.
It prevent microbial growth.

 3. Cellular barriers Ex Leucocytes( WBC),Neutrophils,

Monocytes, Natural killer cells in blood,

Macrophages.
They phagocytose and destroy microbes.
4. Cytokine barriers.
Ex .Interferon proteins When viral infection spreads in cells , the
infected cells secrete this proteins to protect
the non infected cells.

 Acquired immunity is pathogen specific and

memory characterised immunity.

It provide two type of responses produced by B
and T - Lymphocytes
1.Primary response -When our body encounters a
pathogen for first time, it produces primary and
low intensity response.
2.Secondary response-When our body encounters
with the same pathogen again an intense
secondary response is produced.
It is due to the memory of the first encounter.

STRUCTURE OF ANTIBODY

 Each antibody (immunoglobulin) has four

polypeptide chains
i. Two heavy chains-2H CHAINS
2.Two light chains-2 L CHAINS.
The tip of the Y shaped structure bind to specific
antigen , forming an antigen antibody complex.
Each antibody has an antigenic determinants,

which match specific antibody.

Antibody may attach to cell membrane or may be
free.

 Free antibody has three functions.

1.Agglutination of particles.
2.Opsonisation or coating of bacteria for
phagocytosis.
3. Neutralization of bacterial toxins.
Immunoglobulins are classified into five classes.
IgA

IgD
IgE
IgM

TWO TYPES OF ACQUIRED

IMMUNE RESPONSE.
1. HUMORAL IMMUNE SYSTEM( Antibody
Mediated Immune System(AMIS).
It consists of different types of antibody present in
the body fluids like lymph and blood plasma.
Antigen specific antibodies are produced by BLymphocytes.
The system is active against pathogens that enter
the body fluids.

 2.Cell Mediated Immune

System.(CMIS)
It consists of T-Lymphocytes
The system provides cellular immunity.
This system operate against cancer cells
and transplants.
It activates B-Lymphocytes.

 ACTIVE IMMUNITY It achieved by exposure to pathogen or its antigens.

Antibodies are produced by the body Ex. In

immunization
It is slow and takes time to give response.
It lasts for long period.
Its side effects are low.
Ex. Natural immunization and vaccination induce
active immunity.

 PASSIVE IMMUNITY.
It is achieved by taking ready made antibodies
directly.
Antibodies are directly given to the body and are
not produced by the body.
It is quick and effective.
It lasts for few days.
It causes serum sickness(Side effect)
Ex. Mothers colostrum for initial few days gives
antibodies IgM to protect the baby.

VACCINATION
It the introduction of prepared antigenic proteins or

inactivated pathogen into the body, so that body

produces specific antibodies against antigens to fights
with diseases.
Principle- It is based on property of memory cells.
Introduced antigenic proteins stimulate the BLYMPHOCYTES to produce antibodies which would
neutralize the pathogenic agents.
Vaccines also generate B and T cells that recognize
the pathogen quickly.

PASSIVE IMMUNISATION
When quick immune response is

required then pre formed antibodies

are directly given to the patients.
This is called passive immunization
Ex. For tetanus and snake bite

ALLERGY
The exaggerated response of the immune system to

certain antigens present in the environment is called

allergy.
ALLERGENS-Substances in whose immune response is
produced are called allergens.
Ex. Dust, pollens, animal dung etc.
Antibodies are produced to these allergens are of

IgE types.

SYMPTOMS OF ALLERGY.
1.Sneezing.
2.Watery eyes.
3.Running nose.
4.Difficulty in breathing.
REASONS OF ALLERGY1.Release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin
from mast cells.
2. Modern day life style and low immunity power of
the body.
TREATMENT--Drugs like antihistamine ,adrenalin
and steroids reduce the symptoms of allergy.

AUTO IMMUNE DISEASES

Auto immune diseases are those

diseases or disorders caused when the

body's immune system goes off the
track and starts destroying self cells
and molecules.
Ex. Rheumatoid arthritis. Hasimotos
thyroiditis, Systemic lupus

COMPONENTS AND FEATURES

OF IMMUNE SYSTEM

Components
-Lymphoid organs, Tissues, Cells and Antibodies.
Features1.It recognizes foreign antigens.
2. It response to foreign antigens.
3. It memorise the foreign antigens.
4.It leads to allergic reactions.
5.It causes auto immune diseases.

LYMPHOID ORGANS
These are organs where the origin, maturation and

proliferation of lymphocytes take place.

TYPES.
1. PRIMARY LYMPHOID ORGANS- Where immature
lymphocytes undergo maturation and differentiation
to antigen specific lymphocytes.
Ex. Bone marrow and Thymus.
2.SECONDARY LYMPHOID ORGANS- Where the
lymphocytes interact with the antigen and proliferate
to form effector cells and memory cells.
Ex. Spleen, tonsils, appendix and payers patch of
small intestine.

 1.Bone marrow.
It is the main lymphoid organ where all the types of

blood cells are formed.

It provides the micro movement for the development
and maturation of B-lymphocytes.

2.Thymus It is located beneath the chest bone.

It keeps reducing size with age.
It provides the micro movement for the development

and maturation of T-Lymphocytes.

3. Spleen.
It contains lymphocytes and phagocytes.

 It act as a filter of blood by trapping blood-borne

microbes.
It is the reservoir of erythrocytes.

4.Lymph nodes
These are the small solid structure ,found at different

points along lymphatic system.

They act as filters to trap microbes

5.Mucosal Associated Lymphoid

Tissues.(MALT).
These are the mucosal tissues associated with the

major tracts.
It traps pathogens.

AIDS(Acquired
Immunodeficiency Syndrome)
It was reported in 1981.
Causative Organism-A retrovirus ,Human

Immunodeficiency Virus.
Transmission.
1.Sexual contact with infected person.
2.Transfusion of contaminated blood.
3.Sharing of infected needle.
4.From mother to foetus through placenta.

 Diagnostic test-ELISA Test.(Enzyme linked Immuno

Sorbent Assay).
Treatment-Antiretroviral drugs.
PREVENTION-.
1.Imparting awareness to public
2. Blood and semen donors should be routinely
screened for HIV.
3.Use of disposable syringes, needles, dialyzing sets
etc.
4.Single partners, safe sex with condoms..
5. Prevention of sexual contact with unknown partners
and AIDS patients

LIFE CYCLE OF HIV

1. HIV enters the macrophages.
2.The RNA of virus replicates and DNA is formed

by reverse transcriptase.
3. The viral DNA incorporated with host DNA
and directs the cells to produce viral particles.
4. The macrophages continue to produce virus
particles.
5.The virus then enters the T-helper lymphocytic
cells and replicates to forms progeny virus.

 6. The progeny virus then attack other

T-helper cells so there is a progressive

reduction of T-lymphocytic cells.
The person becomes easily infected by
bacteria, viruses and other parasites.
The person is unable to protect
himself/herself against any infections.

CANCER
When cell division and differentiation is
uncontrolled and undifferentiated, then such cell
give rise to masses of cells called tumours or
cancers.
In normal cells the contact inhibition property
inhibits their uncontrolled growth.
TYPES OF TUMOURS 1.BENIGN TUMOURS- They remain confined to

their original position and do not spread to other

parts, they cause little damage.

 2.MALIGNANT TUMOURS-They are masses of

proliferating cells, which grow rapidly,

invade and damage the surrounding normal
cells.
These cells compete with other cells for vital
nutrients and disrupt the normal
metabolism.
These cells show the property of
metastasis.(The spreading of cancerous cells
to noncancerous areas )

CARCINOGENS
Physical , chemical or biological agents which

transform normal cells to Cancerous neoplastic cells

are called carcinogens.
Physical agents-X-rays, Gamma rays and UV rays.
Chemical agents- Tobacco smoke.
Biological agents-Cancer causing virus.(Oncogenic
Virus).
Inactive cancer virus in the cell is called Protooncogene.

DETECTION OF CANCER
1.Biopsy.
2.Histopathological studies of tissues and

blood.
3. Bone marrow test.
4.Radiography,CT,(Computed
tomography),MRI(Magnetic resonance
imaging)
5.Molecular biology technique.

TREATMENT OF CANCER.

1.SURGERY.
2.RADIATION THERAPY.
3.CHEMOTHERAPY.
4.IMMUNOTHERAPY. Ex,Alpha interferons ,which
activates the immune system and destroys the tumors.
(BIOLOGICAL RESPONSE MODIFIERS).
Cancer is usually treated by combination of all these
approaches.

DRUG ABUSE
When drugs are taken for a purpose

other than their normal clinical use

and in amounts or frequency that
impair ones physical, physiological and
psychological functions, constitute
drug abuse.

COMMONLY ABUSED DRUGS

OPIOIDS.
These are drugs which binds to specific receptors of

CNS and gastrointestinal tract

These are obtained by acetylation of morphine .
It is obtained by latex of Papaver sominiferum(poppy
plant).
These are depressant and slow down the body
functions.
These are taken by snorting and injections.
Ex. Smack,(Brown sugar),Heroin.

 2.CANNABINOIDS
These drugs interact with specific receptors

of brain.
These are obtained by inflorescences of
Cannabis sativa.
It affect the cardiovascular system of the
body.
They are taken by inhalation and oral
ingestion.
Ex.Marijuana,Hashish,Charas and Ganja.

 COCA ALKALOIDS These drugs interfere with the transport of

neuro transmitter dopamine.

These are obtained from coca plant
Erythroxylon coca.
It stimulates CNS . It causes hallucinations
and increased energy.
These are usually snorted/smoking.
Ex.Cocaine( CRACK)

 HALLUCINOGENS Products from plants like Atropa belladona and Datura

are hallucinogens.
TOBACCO It contain nicotine as stimulant.
It can be taken as chewing or smoking.
It stimulate the secretion of adrenalin and nor
adrenalin, thus heart beat is increased.
Smoking increases the CO content of the blood, it
causes oxygen deficiency.
It increases the chances of cancers of lungs,throat etc.

ADOLESCENCE AND ALCOHOL

ABUSE
It is a period of 12-18 years of age when process of

maturation towards his/her attitudes and belief take

place.
NEED OF ALCOHOL/DRUG.
1.Curiocity.
2.Experimentation.
3. To escape from stress and problems.
4.Unsupportive family structure.
5.Peer pressure.

ADDICTION& DEPENDENCE
Addiction refers to the physical and psychological

attachment to certain effects of drugs or alcohol.

Dependence is a state of compulsion to take the
addictive substance, in the absence of which the body
shows characteristic unpleasant withdrawal
syndrome/symptoms.

EFFECTS OF DRUG/ALCOHOL
ABUSE
1.Reckless behaviour,Vandalism and Violence.
2.It leads to cerebral haemorrhage, respiratory and

heart failure.
3.Drop in academic performance
4. Lack of interest in personal hygiene.
5.Withdrawal and isolation from family and friends.
6.Aggressive and rebellious behaviour.
7.Lack of interest in hobbies.
8. Change in eating and sleeping habits.

9.Flutuations in weight.
10.I leads to infections like AIDS and Hepatitis.
11.It damages the CNS and liver.
12.In females it causes masculinisation
Increased aggressiveness
Mood swings
Abnormal menstrual cycles. Etc.
13. In males-It causes acne
Increased aggressiveness
Decreased sperm production
Enlargement of prostate glands Etc.

Prevention and control

1.Avoid undue peer pressure.
2.Educating and counselling to face

problems of life and to accept failures and

disappointment as part of life.
3.Seeking help from parents and friends etc
4.Initiating proper remedial steps or
treatment.5
5.Seeking professional and medical help for
deaddiction and rehabilitation.

 1.How do saliva and tear help to prevent bacterial

infection?
Ans: -saliva and tear contain lysozymes.

-Lysozymes are the enzymes which digest the cell

wall of bacteria

-By lysing the cell wall, they kill bacteria and

prevent their infection.

2. What is vaccination?How does it help in producing

immunity?
Ans:- Vaccination is the process of introducing a
preparation of antigenic protein of the pathogens or
weakened or killed pathogen into the body.
-The vaccines include quick multiplication of B and Tlymphocytes;some of them are stored as memory cells

 4 .What are the advantages of people being healthy

?
Ans-When people are healthy,
a)They are efficient at work which consequently
increases productivity and brings economic prosperity
b)Health increases longevity.
c)It reduces infant and maternal mortality

5 .a) Name the respective forms in which the malarial

parasite gains entry into

i) Human body and
ii) Body of female Anopheles
b) Name the hosts where the sexual and the asexual
reproduction of malarial parasite occur respectively

 6. Define innate immunity. Name and explain the

category of barrier which involves macrophages.

Ans. Innate immunity refers to all those defence
elements with which a person is born and are always
available to protect the body. -Macrophanges form part
of the cellular barrier. -The cellular barrier includes
the following specialized cells; (i) Polymorphonuclear
leucocytes. (ii) Monocytes. (iii) Natural killer
lymphocytes and (iv) Macrophages. - these cells
phagocytose and destroy the invading microbes.
7. What is meant by writing H2L2 for an antibody?
Name any four types of antibodies produced in
our/human body?
Ans. - Each antibody molecule has four peptide chains.
- Of them, two are small and called light chains (L)

 Difference:
Viral Oncogenes
These are the genes present in the oncogenic viruses,

which effect oncogenic transformation of the cells they

infect.
Cellular Oncogenes
These are the genes present in normal cells and code
for growth factors; when activated under certain
conditions, can cause oncogenic transformation of the
cell.


9(i) Explain metastasis. Why is it fatal?
(ii) The lymphocytes are of two types B and T-cells.

Why are they called so? (iii) A person was injured in a

road accident and required an urgent immune
response. What should be done?
Ans. (i) Metastasis is the property of tumor cells,
which get separated from a tumor, spread to different
sites in the body through body fluids and produce
secondary tumors wherever they are lodged. Since
secondary tumors are formed at several parts of the
body, it is difficult to be diagnosed and treated; hence
it is fatal. (ii) Those lymphocytes which undergo
maturation in the bone marrow are called B-cells while

 CIRRHOSIS :- A fatal disease of liver causes due to

chronic use of alcohol.

CONTACT INHIBITION :- A property of normal
cells due to which contact with other cells inhibits
their uncontrolled growth. Cancerous cells have
lost the quality of contact inhibition hence divide
uncontrollably.
DISEASE :- A state when functioning of one or
more organs or systems of the body is adversely
affected, characterized by various symptoms, we
say that we have a disease.
HEALTH :- A state of complete physical, mental
and social well being.
IMMUNITY :- The overall ability of organisms to

Differences

Active Immunity
1.Antibodies are developed
2. By our own body cells in
3. Response to antigens.
4. It takes time to developed immunity.
5. It stays for longer period.
Passive Immunity
1. Antibodies are developed in other vertebrates in
response to deliberate injection of antigens, are
injected in our body.

2. It is used when immune response has to be faster.

3.. It stays for short period.

 INNATE IMMUNITY
1. It includes all the defense elements with which an

individual is born.
2. Non specific .
3. It consist of Physical , Physiological , Cellular and
Cytokine barriers
ACQUIRED IMUNITY
1. It acquired after birth either by contacting the

disease or by vaccination.
2. Specific.
3. It includes hummral or antibody mediated
Immunity and cell mediated immunity.