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PRODUCTION PROCESSES II
CHAPTER 6
SHEET METAL WORKING PROCESSES
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Sheet metalworking includes cutting and forming operations performed on
relatively thin sheets of metal (0.4-6 mm).
The tooling used to perform sheet metalwork is called punch and die. Most sheet
metal operations are performed on machine tools called presses.
The term stamping press is used to distinguish these presses from forging and
extrusion presses. The sheet metal products are called stampings.
The commercial importance of sheet metalworking is significant.
The number of consumer and industrial products that include sheet metal parts:
automobile and truck bodies, airplanes, railway cars and locomotives, farm
and construction equipment, small and large appliances, office furniture,
computers and office equipment, and more. Sheet metal parts are generally
characterized by high strength, good dimensional tolerances, good surface finish,
and relatively low cost.
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Cut off
Lancing
scrap
blank
scrap
blanking
piercing
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Classification of Sheet
Metalworking Processes
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Fig.6.2 Basic processes involved in forming sheet metal components. (a) Processes involving
local deformation.
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Fig.6.4 Steps
in production
of washer
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The cutting of metal between die components is a shearing process in which the
metal is stressed in shear between two cutting edges to the point of fracture, or
beyond its ultimate strength.
The metal is subjected to both tensile and compressive stresses; stretching beyond
the elastic limit occurs; then plastic deformation, reduction in area, and, finally,
fracturing starts and becomes complete.
Blanking punch diameter= Db-2c
Blanking die diameter= Db
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The cutting of metal between die components is a shearing process in which the
metal is stressed in shear between two cutting edges to the point of fracture, or
beyond its ultimate strength. The metal is subjected to both tensile and
compressive stresses; stretching beyond the elastic limit occurs; then plastic
deformation, reduction in area, and, finally, fracturing starts and becomes complete.
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Fig.6.3 Shearing
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Figure (a) Effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the
deformation zone in shearing.
As the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die rather
than be sheared. In practice, clearances usually range between 2% and 10%
of the thickness of the sheet. (b) Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm
(0.25-in) thick AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel in the sheared region.
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Fig.6.8
Die diameter is enlarged with clearance c in punching.
In blanking, the punch diameter is decreased to account for clearance.
D is the nominal size of the final product.
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An angular clearance must be provided for the die hole to allow parts to drop
through it:
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P DtS
P SLt
where;
S= shear strength of material, kg/mm2
D= hole diameter, mm
L= shear length, mm
t= material thickness, mm
For example to produce a hole of 20mmX20mm in a material 2mm in
thickness with 40 kg/mm2 shear strength:
P= 40 kg/mm2x(2x20+2x20)mmx2mm
P= 40x160 kg= 6400 kg force is required.
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Fig.6.10 The basic components of the simple blanking and punching dies
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Multi-operational dies
More complicated pressworking dies include:
compound die to perform two or more operations at a single position of the
metal strip
progressive die to perform two or more operations at two or more positions of
the metal strip
Fig.6.11 Method of making a simple washer in a compound blanking and punching die
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Multi-operational dies
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2r
rSin
xy
2r
ab
3
h
3
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l1x1 l2 x2 l3 x3 .... lx
x
l1 l2 l3 ....
l
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l1 y1 l2 y2 l3 y3 .... ly
y
l1 l2 l3 ....
l
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EXAMPLE
Find the center of pressure and the required cutting force of the following blank
(S=40 kg/mm2 and t=2mm).
Element
(l)(x)
(l)(y)
4.00
0.00
6.25
0.00
25.00
4.71
1.50
9.20
7.05
43.33
3.20
4.00
7.00
12.80
22.40
2.50
4.00
5.00
10.00
12.50
3.00
1.50
4.25
4.50
12.75
1.57
1.00
0.00
1.57
0.00
3
1
4
115.98
TOTAL
18.98
35.92
1.89cm
18.98
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35.92
115.98
6.10cm
18.98
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0.25+t
CHAPTER 6 SHEET METAL
WORKING PROCESSES
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Fig.6. Effect of different clearances when punching hard and soft alloys
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where;
t : thickness of the stock,
W: width of the stock,
B: space between part and edge (1.5t),
C: lead of the die (L+B),
L&H: dimensions of the work piece.
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Scrap
%Scrap
X 100
Total
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Util.
%Util.
X 100
Total
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HOMEWORK:
If two strips (250 mm and 125 mm width) are available for the production of 100
mm blanks, which one have to be preferred for maximum material utilization?
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6.4 BENDING
Bending is defined as the straining of the sheet metal around a straight edge:
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Fig.6.16 (Left) V-bending, and (Right) edge bending; (1) before and (2) after bending
V-bendingsheet metal is bent along a straight line between a V-shape punch and die.
Edge bendingbending of the cantilever part of the sheet around the die edge.
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Lf L0
Lf=L1+L2+BA
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Rmin>5t practical
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The minimum bend radius for a given thickness of sheet can be predicted fairly
accurately from the reduction of area measured in tension test, Ar.
Rm in
1
1
t
2 Ar
Rmin ( 1 Ar )2
2
t
2 Ar Ar
Ar
Ao A f
Ao
Springback ratio
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f Ro t/ 2
o R f t/ 2
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The force required bending a length L about a radius R may be estimated from;
o Lt 2
2( R t/ 2)
tan
Bending forces
The maximum bending force is estimated as
where Kbf is the constant that depends on the process, Kbf = 1.33 for V-bending
and Kbf = 0.33 for edge bending; w is the width of bending; D is the die opening
dimension as shown in the figure:
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Do
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Clearance
Clearance c is the distance between the punch and die and is about 10% greater
than the stock thickness:
c = 1.1t
Holding force
The improper application of the holding force can cause severe defects in the
drawn parts such as (a) flange wrinkling or (b) wall wrinkling if the holding force is
too small, and (c) tearing if the folding force is overestimated.
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The force on the punch required to produce a cup is the summation of the ideal
force of deformation, the frictional forces, and the force required to produce
ironing. Mathematical calculation of the drawing force is very complex. Following
approximate equation is developed:
D
d / 2
P dt 11
. o n 2 H e
B
d
D
where;
P = total punch load,
d = punch diameter,
H = hold drawn force,
t = wall thickness,
= efficiency
o=
D =
B =
P odt
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The drawability of a metal is measured by the ratio of the blank diameter to the
diameter of the cup drawn from the blank (usually accepted as punch diameter). For
a given material there is a Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR), representing the largest
blank that can be drawn through a die without tearing.
D
LDR e
d
Where, is an efficiency term to account for frictional losses. If =1, then LDR=2.7
while =0.7, LDR2 which is used in most practical applications.
Some of the practical considerations which affect drawability:
Rd 10t
Rp should be big enough to prevent tearing.
Clearance between punch and die; 20 to 40% greater than t.
Hold-down pressure; 2% of o and lubricate die walls
The diameter of blank required to draw a given cup may be obtained approximately
by equating surface areas.
D 2
d 2
dh and
D d 2 4dh
4
4
where; h is height of cup.
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6.5.1 REDRAWING
If the shape change required by the part design is too severe (limiting drawing ratio is
too high, or LDR is not sufficient to form a desired cup), complete forming of the part
require more than one drawing step. The second drawing step and any further
drawing steps if needed, are referred to as redrawing. Throat angle is 10-15.
Redrawing is generally done in decreasing ratios as given below:
(D/d)= 1.43, 1.33, 1.25, 1.19, 1.14 and 1.11.
If these redrawing steps are not enough to reach required cup diameter, annealing
have to be performed and then redrawing can be performed.
1st draw
last draw
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6.5.2 EXAMPLE:
A 200 mm blank is to be drawn to a 50 mm cup. Estimate the minimum number of
draws required using the drawing ratios given below:
Draw
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
Ratio
1.43
1.33
1.25
1.19
1.14
1.10
Solution:
LDR=2
D/d = 200/50 = 4 > 2
So that redrawing is necessary.
1.
2.
3.
D
200
1.43 D1
139 .86
D1
1.43
D1
139 .86
1.33 D2
105 .16
D2
1.33
D2
105 .16
1.25 D3
84 .13
D3
1.25
4.
5.
6.
D3
84 .13
1.19 D4
70 .69
D4
1.19
D4
70 .69
1.14 D5
62 .01
D5
1.14
D5
62 .01
1.1 D6
56 .38
D6
1.1
56.38>50
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Therefore annealing should be applied. But it might be better to anneal the blank
before 6th draw to reduce number of redraws. We know that LDR=2. So that if
annealing is performed after 3rd draw where D3 = 84.13 mm, than ratio to reach
required cup diameter is:
84.13
1.68 < 2
50
Therefore, after 3rd draw, blank is annealed and then redraw with a ratio of 1.68 to
obtain required cup diameter. The required number of drawing is then 4.
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showing
Advantages:
Limitations:
Area of application:
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Hydroforming
It is similar to Guerin process but instead of rubber pad a rubber diaphragm
filled with fluid is used:
Fig.6.30 Hydroform process:
(1) start-up, no fluid in the cavity;
(2) press closed, cavity pressurized
with hydraulic fluid;
(3) punch pressed into work to form
part.
Symbols:
v - velocity,
F applied force, and
p - hydraulic pressure
Advantages:
Limitations:
Area of application:
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Stretch forming
In stretch forming the sheet metal is stretched and bent to achieve the desired shape:
Fig.6.31 Stretch forming: (1) start of the process; (2) form die is pressed into the work
causing it to stretched and bent over the form. Symbols: v - velocity, Fdie - applied force
Advantages:
Limitations:
Area of application:
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Spinning
Spinning is a metal forming process in which an axially symmetric part is gradually
shaped over a mandrel by means of a rounded tool or roller:
Fig.6.32 In spinning operation, flat circular blanks are often formed into hollow shapes such
as photographic reflectors. In a lathe, tool is forced against a rotating disk, gradually forcing
the metal over the chuck to conform to its shape. Chucks and follow blocks are usually
made of wood for this operation
Advantages:
Limitations:
Area of application:
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Explosive forming
It involves the use of an explosive charge placed in water to form sheet into the die cavity.
Fig.6.33 Explosive forming: (1) set-up, (2) explosive is detonated, and (3) shock wave
forms part
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Advantages:
Limitations:
Area of application:
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Electrohydraulic forming
This is a HREF process in which a shock wave to deform the work into a die cavity is
generated by the discharge of electrical energy between two electrodes submerged
in water. Similar to explosive forming, but applied only to small part sizes.
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Electromagnetic forming
The sheet metal is deformed by the mechanical force of an electromagnetic field
induced in the workpiece by a coil:
Fig.6.36
Electromagnetic
forming: (1) set-up in which
coil is inserted into tubular
workpiece surrounded by
die, (2) formed part
Advantages:
Limitations:
Area of application:
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HOMEWORK:
If two strips (250 mm and 125 mm width) are available for the production of 100
mm blanks, which one have to be preferred for maximum material utilization?
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THE END
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