ENGINNERING GEOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
When the St. Francis dam in southern
California failed in 1928 with a loss of many
lives and damages in millions of dollars ; the
civil engineering profession a woke to the
idea that the careful design of a structure
itself isnt all that is required for its safety.
This is followed by the appearance of new
specialist engineering geology.

 ..When designing a structure, it is necessary to

determine and take into account the
environmental conditions under which it will be
constructed. These notably should include soils
and rocks that will support the structure, their
composition, state and properties and also the
mode of their occurrence, thickness of individual
layers, jointing of the hard rock mass etc..
The mode of occurrence of subsurface water and
its regime in the soil mass being explored are an
important component of the problem in hand..

 In addition, a structure to be built may be

under deleterious effect of one or more
natural geological processes or phenomena
known as geodynamic. This include; frost and
foremost, seismic phenomena (earth quakes),
landslide and rock fall, collapse induced by
caving of the roofs of substenaneous voids
etc..

 .. The goal of this course is to give the student

of the geology department, the basic
geotechnical principles that can provide a
solid basis for the solution of problems
connected with natural environment of an
engineering structure, particularly the
surrounding ground..

Definitions

Soil:
In general sense of engineering, soil is defined as the uncemented aggregate
of mineral grains and decayed organic matter (solid particles; along with the
liquid and gas that occupy the empty spaces between the soil particles)..
Soil is used as a construction materials in various civil engineering projects, and it
support structural foundations..

Soil mechanics:
It is the branch of science that deals with the study of physical properties of soil
and the behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of forces..

Soil engineering:
It is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to particle problems..

Engineering geology:
It is defined as a branch of human knowledge that uses geological information
combined with practices and experience to assist the engineer in the solution of
problems in which such knowledge may be applicable.
Or its the branch of geology which studies the dynamics of the upper horizon of the
earth crust due to the human engineering activity.

Recently it is the science which studies the upper part of the earth crust as a medium
for human activity Also the engineering geology is the science which concerns with
the exploitation and protection of geological environment..

Geotechnics:

It means the application of earth science (geology, soil mechanics, pedology,

hydrology, geophysics etc.)

 Engineering geology can be subdivided into two

main branches:
The soil engineering &
Engineering geodynamics which include the
engineering geological processes e.g.
Landslides, carstification, earthquakes, action of
surface and subsurface waters, action of marine
waters and etc..

Chapter one

Soils & Rocks

 Soils :
The mineral grains that form the solid phases of a soil
aggregate are the product of rock weathering, the main
physical properties of soil are dictated by the size, shape
and chemical composition of the grains.
Rocks:

Igneous- Metamorphic- Sedimentary

Rock forming minerals :

Soil Horizons
Layer of Soil Parallel to
Surface
Properties a function
of climate, landscape
setting, parent
material, biological
activity, and other soil
forming processes.
Horizons (A, E, B, C, R,
etc)
Image Source: University of Texas, 2002

Residual Rocks and Minerals

Residual minerals weather in place to form soils.

Soil

Bedrock
http://www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/FieldImages.html

Products of subaerial weathering

1- Source rock
2- Secondary minerals
3- Soluble materials
Source rock : becomes either,
Young soil +rock fragments + immature minerals e.g. biotite, Pyroxene,
Amphibole, Calcic feldspar
or
Mature soil + Q z+ K feldspar + Muscovite.

Secondary minerals:
Formed by chemical reactions: clay minerals, ferric oxides, hydroxides, Al
hydroxides.
Soluble materials:
CO32+, SiO42+, K, Na, Ca, Mg.

Clay minerals
The term clay is used as mineral name or textural name (-1 or -2 m).
Clays are small crystalline particles of one or more members of a
small group of minerals. They are primarily hydrous aluminum
silicates with magnesium or iron occupying all or part of the Al
positions in some minerals, and with alkalis (e.g. Na+, K+) or alkaline
earth (e.g. Ca++, Mg++) also present as essential constituents in some
of them..
The clay minerals have unit cells with a residual negative charge.
Most clay minerals exhibit plasticity when mixed with limited amount
of water.
They have relatively high resistance to weathering (end product).
They found as residual clay, form the main constituents of shale and
muds, found in the argillaceous limestones and marles.

Clay minerals
The term clay is used as mineral name or textural name (-1 or -2 m).
Clays are small crystalline particles of one or more members of a
small group of minerals. They are primarily hydrous aluminum
silicates with magnesium or iron occupying all or part of the Al
positions in some minerals, and with alkalis (e.g. Na+, K+) or alkaline
earth (e.g. Ca++, Mg++) also present as essential constituents in some
of them..
The clay minerals have unit cells with a residual negative charge.
Most clay minerals exhibit plasticity when mixed with limited amount
of water.
They have relatively high resistance to weathering (end product).
They found as residual clay, form the main constituents of shale and
muds, found in the argillaceous limestones and marles.

Structural unites of the clay minerals

The clay minerals are one member of the family which
called Phyllosillicates .
The different clay minerals groups are characterized by
stacking arrangements of sheets (sometimes chains) and
manner in which two or three sheet layers are hold
together.
The two basic units in clay minerals structures are the Silica
tetrahedron and the Aluminum or Magnesium octahedron.
Silica sheet composition (Si4O10)4 .Octahedron sheet
composition either,
Gibbsite sheet, Gibbsite mineral [Al2 (OH) 6], Di-octahedral..
Or
Brucite sheet, Brucite mineral [Mg3 (OH) 6], Tri-octahedral.

Synthesis

Mitchell, 1993

Noncrystalli
ne clay allophane
18

Group 1:1
Is made of a silica and octahedral sheet.
Structural formula is[ (OH)8Si4Al4O10]. And the
bonding between the successive layers is both
by Vander Waals forces and hydrogen bonds,
No swelling.
The members of Kaolinite subgroup are nacritedickite and hallysite. Nactite and dickite are rare
and appear to form as a result of hydrothermal
processes. Two form of hallysite are present the
nonhydrated [(OH)8Si4Al4O10], and hydrated one
[(OH)8Si4Al4O10.4H2O)].

1:1 Minerals-Kaolinite
Basal spacing is 7.2

layer

Si4Al4O10(OH)8. Platy shape

The bonding between layers are van der
Waals forces and hydrogen bonds
(strong bonding).
There is no interlayer swelling
Trovey, 1971 ( from
Mitchell, 1993)

20

17 m

Width: 0.1~ 4m, Thickness: 0.05~2 m

Clay minerals
The term clay is used as mineral name or textural name (-1 or -2 m).
Clays are small crystalline particles of one or more members of a
small group of minerals. They are primarily hydrous aluminum
silicates with magnesium or iron occupying all or part of the Al
positions in some minerals, and with alkalis (e.g. Na+, K+) or alkaline
earth (e.g. Ca++, Mg++) also present as essential constituents in some
of them..
The clay minerals have unit cells with a residual negative charge.
Most clay minerals exhibit plasticity when mixed with limited amount
of water.
They have relatively high resistance to weathering (end product).
They found as residual clay, form the main constituents of shale and
muds, found in the argillaceous limestones and marles.

Structural unites of the clay minerals

The clay minerals are one member of the family which
called Phyllosillicates .
The different clay minerals groups are characterized by
stacking arrangements of sheets (sometimes chains) and
manner in which two or three sheet layers are hold
together.
The two basic units in clay minerals structures are the Silica
tetrahedron and the Aluminum or Magnesium octahedron.
Silica sheet composition (Si4O10)4 .Octahedron sheet
composition either,
Gibbsite sheet, Gibbsite mineral [Al2 (OH) 6], Di-octahedral..
Or
Brucite sheet, Brucite mineral [Mg3 (OH) 6], Tri-octahedral.

Synthesis

Mitchell, 1993

Noncrystalli
ne clay allophane
23

Group 1:1
Is made of a silica and octahedral sheet.
Structural formula is[ (OH)8Si4Al4O10]. And the
bonding between the successive layers is both
by Vander Waals forces and hydrogen bonds,
No swelling.
The members of Kaolinite subgroup are nacritedickite and hallysite. Nactite and dickite are rare
and appear to form as a result of hydrothermal
processes. Two form of hallysite are present the
nonhydrated [(OH)8Si4Al4O10], and hydrated one
[(OH)8Si4Al4O10.4H2O)].

1:1 Minerals-Kaolinite
Basal spacing is 7.2

layer

Si4Al4O10(OH)8. Platy shape

The bonding between layers are van der
Waals forces and hydrogen bonds
(strong bonding).
There is no interlayer swelling
Trovey, 1971 ( from
Mitchell, 1993)

25

17 m

Width: 0.1~ 4m, Thickness: 0.05~2 m

Group 2:1
Structuraly this group formed from one octahedral
sheet sandwidshed between two tetrahedral sheet.
The Smectite minerals :
The bonding between successive layers is by Van der
Waals forces and by cations that may present to
balance charge deficiencies in the structure. These
bonds are weak and easily separated by cleavage or
adsorption of water or other polar liquids.
The theoretical composition in the absence of lattice
substitutions is [(OH)4Si8Al4O20.n(interlayer)H2o].

2:1 Minerals-Montmorillonite
Si8Al4O20(OH)4nH2O
(Theoretical
unsubstituted). Film-like shape.
There is extensive isomorphous
substitution for silicon and aluminum
by other cations, which results in
charge deficiencies of clay particles.
nH2O and cations exist between unit
layers, and the basal spacing is from
9.6 to (after swelling).

nH2O+cations

The interlayer bonding is by van der

Waals forces and by cations which
balance charge deficiencies (weak
bonding).
There exists interlayer swelling,
which is very important to
engineering practice (expansive
clay).
27

5 m

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

Width: 1 or 2 m, Thickness: 10
~1/100 width

Origins of Charge Deficiencies

1. Imperfections in the crystal lattice 2. Isomorphous substitution.
The cations in the octahedral or tetrahedral sheet can be replaced by
different kinds of cations without change in crystal structure (similar
physical size of cations).
Al in the octahedral sheet may be replaced by Mg, Fe, Zn, Ni, Li or other
cations.
Al may replace up to 15% silicon in the tetrahedral sheet.
The charge deficiency resulting from these substitutions is balanced by the
exchangeable cations that take up positions between the unit cell layers and
on the structure particles.

This is the main source of charge deficiencies for montmorillonite.

Only minor isomorphous substitution takes place in kaolinite.

28

Isomorphous substitution

Some minerals formulas are listed below:

-Di octahedralsmectite (Montmorillonite):

Monmorillonite
Beidellite
Nontronite

(OH)4Si8(Al Mg)4O20
(OH)4(Si Al )Al4O20
(OH)4(Si Al) Fe4O20

-Tri octahedral smectite (Sponite):

Hectorite
Saponite
Sauconite

(OH) 4 Si8 (Mg Li) 6 O20

(OH) 4 (Si Al) Mg6O20
(OH)4(SiAl)8(Zn Mg)6O20

2:1 Minerals-Illite (mica-like minerals)

Si8(Al,Mg, Fe)4~6O20(OH)4(K,H2O)2. Flaky shape.
K potassium

The basic structure is very similar to the mica,

so it is sometimes referred to as hydrous mica.
Illite is the chief constituent in many shales.
Some of the Si4+ in the tetrahedral sheet are
replaced by the Al3+, and some of the Al3+ in
the octahedral sheet are substituted by the
Mg2+ or Fe3+. Those are the origins of charge
deficiencies.
The charge deficiency is balanced by the
potassium ion between layers. Note that the
potassium atom can exactly fit into the
hexagonal hole in the tetrahedral sheet and
form a strong interlayer bonding.
The basal spacing is fixed at 10 in the
presence of polar liquids (no interlayer
swelling).
Width: 0.1~ several m, Thickness: ~ 30

30

7.5 m

Trovey, 1971 ( from

Mitchell, 1993)

Illites differ from the mica in the following:

Fewer of Si++ position are occupied by Al3+ in
illite.
There are some randomness in stacking of
layers in illite.
There is some relatively less K in illilte. Well
organized illite contain 9 to 10% of K2O.
The size of illite particles occurring naturally
is very small

 Glauconite: it is an Fe-rich illite contain Mg

and Fe in octahedral sheet as well as Al.
usually occurs as earthy green pellets.
The vermiculite consist of a regular
interstratification of biotite mica layers and
double molecular layers of water. General
formula is[(OH)4(Mg Ca)x(Si Al)8-x(Mg
Fe)6O20yH2O].
(x~1:1.4, y~8)

2:1 Minerals-Vermiculite (micalike minerals)

The octahedral sheet is brucite.

The basal spacing is from 10 to 14

.
It contains exchangeable cations
such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ and two
layers of water within interlayers.

It can be an excellent insulation

material after dehydrated.
Illite

Mitchell, 1993
33

Vermiculite

Group 2:1:1 (The chlorite minerals)

The structure is similar to
vermeculite except that an
organized octahedral sheet
replaces the double water layer
between mica layers.
The basal spacing is fixed at 14 .
Gibbsite or
brucite

34

Chain Structure Clay Minerals

Some clay minerals are formed
from bonds (double chains) of silica
tetrahedron, The minerals
palygorskite (attapulgite) and
sepiolite differ primarily in the
replacements within the structure.

Attapulgite

.They have lathlike or threadlike

morphologies.
The particle diameters are from 50
to 100 and the length is up to 4 to
5 m.
Attapulgite is useful as a drilling mud
in saline environment due to its high
stability.

4.7 m
35

Trovey, 1971 ( from Mitchell, 1993)

Mixed layer Clay

Due to the greatest similarity in the crystal structure
among the different minerals, the interstratification of
two or more different layer type often occur within a
single particles.
Interstratification may be, regular, with a definite
repitation of the different layers in sequence, or it may be
random. The most abundant mixed layer mineral is
composed of expanded, water bearing and contracted
nonbearing layers.
Montmorillonite-illite is the most common, although
chlorite-vermiculite and chlorite-montmorillonite are often
encountered.
Rectorite is a regular interstratification clay with a micalike layer alternating in a regular manner with
montmorillonite like layer.

Interaction of Water and Clay

Minerals.

37

Charged Clay Particles

- or +

External or interlayer surfaces are

negatively charged in general.
The edges can be positively or
negatively charged.
Different cations balance charge
deficiencies.

Cation

- or +
Kaolinite and negative gold sol
(van Olphen, 1991)
38

Dry condition

The dipolar water is attracted by:

Negatively charged surface of the clay particles.
The cations in the double layer.
Hydrogen bonding where hydrogen atoms in the
water molecules are shared with oxygen atoms
on the surface of the clay.
The partially hydrated cations in the pore water.
The force of attraction between water and clay
decreases with distance from the surface of the
particles.

Clay particle charge and the double

layer
Clay particles carry a net negative charge on their surfaces
and some positively charged sites at the edges. This is the
result of both of isomorphous substitution and of a break
in continuity of the structure at its surface.
In dry clay, the negative charge is balanced by
exchangeable cations like Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+
surrounding the particles being held by electrostatic
attraction.
When water is added to clay, these cations and small
number of anions float around the clay particles. This is
referred to a diffuse double layer (fig. 1.8a). The cation
concentration decreases with distance from the surface of
the particles (fig. 1.8b).

Diffuse Double Layer

-

Clay particle with

negatively charged
surface

Exponential decay

Distance x

Anions
-

41

Concentration

Cations

 All water held to the clay particles by forces

of attraction is known as double layer water.
The intermost layer of double layer water,
which is held very strongly by clay, is known
as adsorbed water.
Figure 1.11 shows the absorbed and doublelayer water for typical montmorillonite and
kaolinite particles.

Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.)

Relative sizes of adsorbed water layers on sodium montmorillonite and

sodium kaolinite

43

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Interaction of Clay Particles

(or Layers)
Interlayer

Particle
Interparticle

Layer

44

Interaction Forces

Net force between clay particles (or interlayers)

LVO forces

= van der Waals attraction +

Double layer repulsion (overlapping of the double layer)+

Coulombian attraction (between the positive edge and negative
face)
45

Thickness of Double Layer

1/ 2

Thickness of
double layer K

repulsion force

0 kT

K
2 2
2n 0 e
0 : Permittivity in vacuum
: Re lative permittivity
k : Boltzman cons tan t
T : Temperature
n 0 : Cation concentration

n0

K repulsion force

e : Electron ch arg e

K repulsion force

: Valence

46

K repulsion force (?)

decreases with increasing

temperature

Interaction of Clay Particles

Flocculated fabric

Dispersed fabric

Edge-to-face (EF): positively

charged edges and negatively
charged surfaces (more common)

Edge-to-edge (EE)
The net interparticle force
between surfaces is
repulsive

Aggregated fabric

Face-to-Face (FF)

Increasing
Electrolyte concentration n0
Ion valence v
Temperature T (?)
47

Decreasing
Permittivity
Size of hydration ion
pH
Anion adsorption

Shifted FF

Reduce the double

layer repulsion (only
applicable to some cases)

Flocculated
or
aggregated fabric

Interaction of Clay Particles (Cont.)

(1) Decrease pH

+
+

(2) Decrease anion adsorption

(3)Size of hydration
Clay
Particle
48

The total required

number of cations
is 10

Atterberg Limit of Clay Minerals

Na-montmorillonite
Thicker double layer
LL=710
Ca-montmorillonite
Thinner double layer

LL=510
The thickness of double
layer increases with
decreasing cation valence.

Lambe and Whitman, 1979

49

Cation Replaceability
Different types and quantities of cations are adsorbed to balance charge
deficiencies in clay particles.
The types of adsorbed cations depend on the depositional environment.
For example, sodium and magnesium are dominant cations in marine
clays since they are common in sea water. In general, calcium and
magnesium are the predominant cations.
The adsorbed cations are exchangeable (replaceable). For example,
Na

Na

Na

Na

Ca

Ca

+4CaCl2
Na

Na

Na

Na

+8NaCl
Ca

Ca
(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

50

Cation Exchange Capacity (cec)

The quantity of exchangeable cations is termed the cation
exchangeable capacity (cec) and is usually expressed as
milliequivalents (meq) per 100 gram of dry clay ( from Mitchell, 1993).
One equivalent = 6.021023 electron charges or 96500 Coulombs, which is 1
Faraday.

51

Swelling Potential
Practically speaking, the three ingredients generally necessary for
potentially damaging swelling to occur are (1) presence of
montmorillonite in the soil, (2) the natural water content must be
around the PL, and (3) there must be a source of water for the
potentially swelling clay (Gromko, 1974, from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation
52

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Interaction of Water and Clay

Minerals.

53

Charged Clay Particles

- or +

External or interlayer surfaces are

negatively charged in general.
The edges can be positively or
negatively charged.
Different cations balance charge
deficiencies.

Cation

- or +
Kaolinite and negative gold sol
(van Olphen, 1991)
54

Dry condition

The dipolar water is attracted by:

Negatively charged surface of the clay particles.
The cations in the double layer.
Hydrogen bonding where hydrogen atoms in the
water molecules are shared with oxygen atoms
on the surface of the clay.
The partially hydrated cations in the pore water.
The force of attraction between water and clay
decreases with distance from the surface of the
particles.

Clay particle charge and the double

layer
Clay particles carry a net negative charge on their surfaces
and some positively charged sites at the edges. This is the
result of both of isomorphous substitution and of a break
in continuity of the structure at its surface.
In dry clay, the negative charge is balanced by
exchangeable cations like Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+
surrounding the particles being held by electrostatic
attraction.
When water is added to clay, these cations and small
number of anions float around the clay particles. This is
referred to a diffuse double layer (fig. 1.8a). The cation
concentration decreases with distance from the surface of
the particles (fig. 1.8b).

Diffuse Double Layer

-

Clay particle with

negatively charged
surface

Exponential decay

Distance x

Anions
-

57

Concentration

Cations

 All water held to the clay particles by forces

of attraction is known as double layer water.
The intermost layer of double layer water,
which is held very strongly by clay, is known
as adsorbed water.
Figure 1.11 shows the absorbed and doublelayer water for typical montmorillonite and
kaolinite particles.

Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.)

Relative sizes of adsorbed water layers on sodium montmorillonite and

sodium kaolinite

59

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Interaction of Clay Particles

(or Layers)
Interlayer

Particle
Interparticle

Layer

60

Interaction Forces

Net force between clay particles (or interlayers)

LVO forces

= van der Waals attraction +

Double layer repulsion (overlapping of the double layer)+

Coulombian attraction (between the positive edge and negative
face)
61

Thickness of Double Layer

1/ 2

Thickness of
double layer K

repulsion force

0 kT

K
2 2
2n 0 e
0 : Permittivity in vacuum
: Re lative permittivity
k : Boltzman cons tan t
T : Temperature
n 0 : Cation concentration

n0

K repulsion force

e : Electron ch arg e

K repulsion force

: Valence

62

K repulsion force (?)

decreases with increasing

temperature

Interaction of Clay Particles

Flocculated fabric

Dispersed fabric

Edge-to-face (EF): positively

charged edges and negatively
charged surfaces (more common)

Edge-to-edge (EE)
The net interparticle force
between surfaces is
repulsive

Aggregated fabric

Face-to-Face (FF)

Increasing
Electrolyte concentration n0
Ion valence v
Temperature T (?)
63

Decreasing
Permittivity
Size of hydration ion
pH
Anion adsorption

Shifted FF

Reduce the double

layer repulsion (only
applicable to some cases)

Flocculated
or
aggregated fabric

Interaction of Clay Particles (Cont.)

(1) Decrease pH

+
+

(2) Decrease anion adsorption

(3)Size of hydration
Clay
Particle
64

The total required

number of cations
is 10

Atterberg Limit of Clay Minerals

Na-montmorillonite
Thicker double layer
LL=710
Ca-montmorillonite
Thinner double layer

LL=510
The thickness of double
layer increases with
decreasing cation valence.

Lambe and Whitman, 1979

65

Cation Replaceability
Different types and quantities of cations are adsorbed to balance charge
deficiencies in clay particles.
The types of adsorbed cations depend on the depositional environment.
For example, sodium and magnesium are dominant cations in marine
clays since they are common in sea water. In general, calcium and
magnesium are the predominant cations.
The adsorbed cations are exchangeable (replaceable). For example,
Na

Na

Na

Na

Ca

Ca

+4CaCl2
Na

Na

Na

Na

+8NaCl
Ca

Ca
(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

66

Cation Exchange Capacity (cec)

The quantity of exchangeable cations is termed the cation
exchangeable capacity (cec) and is usually expressed as
milliequivalents (meq) per 100 gram of dry clay ( from Mitchell, 1993).
One equivalent = 6.021023 electron charges or 96500 Coulombs, which is 1
Faraday.

67

Swelling Potential
Practically speaking, the three ingredients generally necessary for
potentially damaging swelling to occur are (1) presence of
montmorillonite in the soil, (2) the natural water content must be
around the PL, and (3) there must be a source of water for the
potentially swelling clay (Gromko, 1974, from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation
68

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Engineering Applications
Dispersion agents (drilling mud; hydrometer analysis)
Sodium hexa-metaphosphate (NaPO3) and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) are used as
the dispersion agent in the hydrometer analysis. How does this dispersion agent
work?
Three hypotheses:

(1) Edge-charge reversal

The anions adsorption onto the edge of the clay particle may neutralize the positive edgecharge or further reverse the edge-charge from positive to negative. The edge-charge
reversal can form a negative double layer on the edge surfaces to break down flocculated
structure, and assist in forming a dispersed structure.

(2) Ion exchange

The sodium cations can replace the divalent cations existing in the clay particles such as
Ca2+ and Mg2+. The decrease of cation valence can increase the thickness of the double
layer and interparticle repulsion, which can assist in forming a dispersed structure.

(3) pH
The higher pH may make the edge-charge tend to be negative, which can break down the
flocculated structure and assist in forming a dispersed structure. The adding of dispersing
agent such as sodium carbonate may slightly increase the pH.
69

The effect of the clay minerals in

Engineering Geology
The presence of clay minerals in soils and rocks have advantage
and disadvantage effects on the Engineering Geological behavior
of soils and rock mass.

The advantage Effects:

Linening of the irrigation canals.
Used in drilling mud.
Injection of some porous sediments to decrease porosity and
increase shearing strength.
Used in adsorbing of some toxic heavy metals.
The presence of thin layer on the top of silty sediments prevents
the penetration of the water to the slope, prevent its sliding slope.

Disadvantages Effects:
The presence of clays in a slope sediments increase the
probability of its sliding.
The construction engineering structures on the clay lenses
produce their tipping.
The swelling of clay under the foundation of structure
produce the warping of their floors and sometimes to the
failler.
The consolidation of clays under the load of engineering
structure may produce a great settlement of this structure.
The presence of clayey sediments slope produces a high
pore pressure, which decrease the stability of this slope
and its sliding.

Valley and Rivers

Valley formation
From the engineering point of view, valley is characterized by its,
longitudinal profile and its cross sections.
The longitudinal profile of a valley is the profile along its thalweg.
The average of the thalweg is the average gradient of the valley.
The cross sections of the valley for engineering purposes are taken from
bank perpendicular the thalweg.
The lengthening of the valley is accomplished mostly by head erosion, or
gradual destruction of rocks and soil masses in the upstream direction
[i.e.] the backward of the valley.

While cutting backward the stream flowing in the valley also wear its bed
downward, at least locally. In the course of time, the floor of the valley
will cut down to the ground-water level [water table].

Types of streams
1- The permanent stream:
Characterized by the flow in both dry and wet seasons [water
supply from the ground water].
2- Intermitent streams:
Periodically dry out but have permanent water table below the
stream bed.
3- Ephemeral streams:
Contain water only after rainfall or snow melting and have no
connection with water table.
It should be noted that if the valley of a small stream is filled with
earth material and its dry surface is used for engineering purpose,
for instance for a housing project the water flow

Generally, the valley is much wider than the

stream flowing in it, except during flood
periods the width of the valley varies
according to the erodability of the material
on the valley slopes.

The engineering significance of river

terraces
The engineering significance of river terraces is
considerable, particularity in localization of highways and
railroads. If two cites or regions that have to be connected
by railroads have considerable difference in elevations, it
is often convenient to flow the valleys of the streams or
their tributaries flowing between those cities or regions. If
the walls of a valley are steep the construction of a route
along that valley may be difficult and expensive. The
presence of terraces, however avoids (or at least
decreases) excavation in the wall of the valley and thus
reduces the construction costs. In addition, rivers terraces
generally are good sources of sand and gravel for
construction.

Flood Plains and Deltas

The stream sediments can be deposited due to
the decreasing of water carrying these
sediments. This occurs (e.g.) when a stream
reaches a flood plain, a wide flat part of the
valley subjected to floods when the stream
carries an excess of water.
The delta or delta deposits when the running
water of the stream reaches the standing water
of the ocean or other basin into which it flows.

Aeolian Soils and Aeolian Deposits

Aeolian, or wind-blown, soils may be
subdivided into two groups, namely,
1-Loess soils (collapssable soil) such as
primary and secondary loess.
2- Sands forming sand dunes.

Some properties of loess

1- In nature, loess deposits are variable thickness, and layers 200 ft.
thickness have been found.
2- It is very porous.
3- The material is slightly or moderately plastic.
4- Its permeability in the vertical direction is greater than the horizontal
permeability because of stratification.
5- If the loaded loess deposit is wetted, it rapidly consolidated and the
structure constructed on it settles. This property of loess is sometimes
termed hydroconsolidation. There are two explanations of this property:
Most of loess in the United States has clay hulls of films around silt
grains. Added water lubricates the clay and makes the silt grain slide
with respect to one another, which causes the structure built on the loess
deposit to settle. According to the other explanation, the settlements
exhibited by loess in other part of the world can be clay lubrication and
also to the removal by water of weak CaCO3 cement from loess

Engineering problems in loess areas

Because of the hydroconsolidation properties, loess may be a dangerous
foundation material if brought in contact with water.
** In the case of dames and especially their reservoirs, wetting of underlying
material by the water from the reservoir means considerable settlement of the
dam.
**Failer of smaller structures on loess that became saturated are also known. In a
spectacular case of an overnight settling and cracking of a house, the accident
was caused by the discharge of water from a house forgotten on the lawn.
**Another difficulty with loess is its ready ability to [pipe] under water action. If
water start to leak from an excavation or a canal, it forms a path inside the loess
mass which gradually progresses and widens, often irregular, until failer occurs.
Similar accidents also may take place in the case of steel pipe placed in loess.
Water finds its way around the pipe, and cavities as large as [9ft.] in diameter
have been known to develop.

** The loess settlement problem doesnt appear to serious

if an concrete structure is built on a foundation that is not
contact with excessive amount of water ,[e.g.]the footing
of towers transmission line. Such tours, however shouldnt
be placed in local depression which would permit
accumulate around the tower.
-Remolding of several upper feet of loess at the surface
and careful recompaction of the remolded material may
create a reliable platform for building footings.
-In order to control settlement of earth dams on loess,
grouting procedures have been devised, when slurry of
loess and bentonite or loess only is pumping into a pore
holes made in the foundation.

**Embankments made of compacted loess

proved to be entirely satisfactory.
**Excavation in loess usually isnt difficult
because of the capacity of the loess material to
stand on almost vertical slopes. Steep loess
banks, however, are subjected to the formation
of gullies and accumulation of the spalled
material at the toes of the bank. As a gully
advances toward the top of the slop, the slop
may slide.

Engineering problems with sanddunes areas

Stabilization movable sand is major problem in construction and
maintence of high ways and railroads crossing dune zone in
deserts. This can be done, for example, by seading the dune with
such grass varieties as many thrive, planting young trees (mostly
conifers, e.g. pine) and treating the sand with crude road oil.
The dune on which the transmission-line towers is placed may
move away, leaving the foundation of the tower completely
exposed and hence in an unstable condition. For the foundation of
very expensive structure, however, piles should be driven to a
depth unaffected by any shifting of the dunes.
Because the water-sorbing capacity of the dune sand the building
and maintence of hydraulic structure in sand-dune terrain are very
expensive. Irrigation canals in sand-dune terrain should be lined

Alluvial and Water formed Soils

**Alluvial Soil:
Eroded soil carried by water and deposited is alluvial
soil or alluvium. Immediately adjacent to the steep
portion of the valley and headwaters of the stream,
boulders and coarser gravel might be expected. At a
distance of several miles from the place of erosion
small sizes (fines) predominate.
Besides forming terraces and benches in the valley
itself, deposition of alluvium also may occur on plains,
thus forming relatively flat deposits. Alluvial fan can
be found when the gradient abruptly decrease.

Alluvial deposits are stratified, but they are

show some heterogeneity, e.g., it is not
unusual to find a bed of alluvial clay several
feet long, although it might be fairly narrow
and only a few feet thick. Rather uniform
sand and gravel beds of considerable
dimension may be found, and although there
may be lens-like inclusion of sand in gravel
beds and vice versa, these deposits as a
whole are fairly continuous.

Engineering Significance of alluvial

deposits:
Alluvial deposits generally provide an
excellent source for coarse construction
materials, such as concrete aggregates, or
previous material for highway subgrade or
high embankments.

 Open work gravel, the material of open work gravel is poorly

graded, and fines are completely lacking. Thus the voids are
usually open.
Open work gravel usually occurs as lenticular bodies.
It has very high permeability, thus, excessive seepage losses
through these gravels could be expected if they passed
underneath a dam. The injection of grout or a silt or clay into the
open work gravel to decrease its permeability. Sometimes sealing
the deposits tacks placing a layer of silt over their surface.
Bed slides in highway cuts have occurred in open work gravel and
associated material in several cases. On the credit side for open
work gravel is that it often furnishes very prolific supplies of water
when penetrated by water wells.

**Swamps and Peat bogs:

Swamps or marshes are area of wet, soggy
ground, saturated or almost saturated, but
generally not entively covered with water. They
are filled with decaying vegetable matter. Some
swamps have been formed by lakes and sluggish
streams. Swamps often are developed at sea or
lake coasts. In the former case, salty tidal flats
are often intermittent with swampy land.

 Peat in mass of plant remnants in which the

process of humification is under way (gives
fibrous dark brown peat) or already
completed (give black peat). The natural
moisture content of peat material is several
hundred percent (may reach 1000%) by dry
weight.

Engineering problems in Swamps and

Peat deposits:
-The bearing values of the material that may be classified as
organic terrain are very low, and only very light structure such as
secondary roads built on them.
-Drainage prior to construction is highly recommended in order to
decrease the moisture content and increasing the shearing
strength of material.
-In building important highways across organic terrains,
particularly peat areas, the practice of American engineers is to
remove the peat and replace it with adequate fill material, e.g.,
sand, gravel etc.
-Heavy structures in peat areas should be built on piles.

Residual Soils
Residual soils develop easily on sedimentary rocks
particularly on limestone (especially in wet climate
formation area of Terra Rosa Soil) because of their
comparatively weak resistance to solution and
weathering. Signs to destruction in limestone are
sinkholes and caves. The contact between residual
soil and underlying limestone usually is highly
irregular. Subsurface investigation in limestone and
overlying soils should be carried out in considerable
whereas the rock between them may be filled with
caverns. The residual soil on S.S greatly depends on
the type of cement and climate.

Swelling Soil
Appears in many areas in Egypt, Nile valley,
Western Desert.
The swelling pressure in the vertical direction
makes failer of the walls and raising of the floor
of the Houses. The swelling pressure in the
horizontal direction effects on the retaining
walls.
The most famous clays which appear these
properties are the bentonite which is rich in
smectite clay minerals content. This clay is used
as grounting material and in drilling mud.

Detection of free swelling

Dry soil- gridding-sieve No.40-10 cm3 of soil
in 100 cm3 cylinder with distilled water- 24
hours- measuring of the volume of
swelling soil (v) .
Free swelling (F.S.) =

Determination of free swelling

Strain

Free swelling(h)

Swelling of cement

Swelling
Swelling pressure (0.025-0.3 MPa)

Compression

Subsidence (Settlement)

Factors affecting on swelling

Mineral composition
Chemical composition and concentration of
dissolved salts
External pressure
Solutions of swelling problems:
Replacement of swelling soul by sand and gravel
for a depth ranging between 0.5 to 2.5 ms
depending on the type of the soil. This method is
successfully applied in many places in Egypt, e.g.
Nacer City, Ismailia, Dakhla&Kharga Oasis, AlexCairo desert road.

Solutions of swelling problems:

1- Replacement of swelling soul by sand and gravel for a depth
ranging between 0.5 to 2.5 ms depending on the type of the soil.
This method is successfully applied in many places in Egypt, e.g.
Nacer City, Ismailia, Dakhla&Kharga Oasis, Alex-Cairo desert road.
2- Addition of lime with ratio 3-5 %.
3- Remolding.
4- Constructions of barrier to prevent the reaching of water to the
foundation.
5- Immersion of soil with water before construction (but it is difficult
to know the swelling reaches to the maximum or no.)
6- The foundations of the constructions must be strong and rain
forced.

Summery of Collapsible Soil

Primary loess: wind-blown material which still in the same location where it was originally
deposited by wind and has undergo little, if any, chemical decomposition.
secondary loess:
Constituents of loess
Sorted mixture of silt, fine sand and clay particles.
Open cohesive fabrics.
High percent of silt size particles, poorly graded and contains high carbonate content.
*Properties:
Variable thickness Permeability Hydro consolidation and collapse.
*Engineering Problems:
Considerable settlement of dams.
Failer of smaller structure.
Its ready ability to pipe especially around steel pipes.
Power-transmission line must be no constructed on the depression in which water may be come.
The best solution for they problem is the remolding.
Excavation is usually not difficult due to the presence of gully and the ability of loess to stand at
high slope angle.

Two methods to study the hydroconsolidation of loess