CISE-301: Numerical Methods

Topic 1:
Introduction to Numerical Methods and Taylor Series

Lectures 1-4:

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Lecture 1
Introduction to Numerical Methods

What are NUMERICAL METHODS?

Why do we need them?
Topics covered in CISE301.

Reading Assignment: Pages 3-10 of textbook

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Numerical Methods
Numerical Methods:
Algorithms that are used to obtain numerical
solutions of a mathematical problem.

Why do we need them?

1. No analytical solution exists,
2. An analytical solution is difficult to obtain
or not practical.

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What do we need?
Basic Needs in the Numerical Methods:
Practical:
Can be computed in a reasonable amount of time.

Accurate:

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Good approximate to the true value,

Information about the approximation error
(Bounds, error order, ).

Outlines of the Course

Taylor Theorem
Number
Representation
Solution of nonlinear
Equations
Interpolation
Numerical
Differentiation
Numerical Integration

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Solution of linear
Equations
Least Squares curve
fitting
Solution of ordinary
differential equations
Solution of Partial
differential equations

Solution of Nonlinear Equations

Some simple equations can be solved analytically:

x2 4x 3 0
Analytic solution roots

4 2 4(1)(3)
2(1)

x 1 and x 3

Many other equations have no analytical solution:

x 9 2 x 2 5 0

No analytic solution
x

xe

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Methods for Solving Nonlinear Equations

o

Bisection Method

Newton-Raphson Method

Secant Method

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Solution of Systems of Linear Equations

x1 x2 3
x1 2 x2 5
We can solve it as :
x1 3 x2 ,

3 x 2 2 x2 5

x2 2, x1 3 2 1
What to do if we have
1000 equations in 1000 unknowns.
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Cramers Rule is Not Practical

Cramer's Rule can be used to solve the system:
3
5
x1
1
1

1
2
1,
1
2

1
1
x2
1
1

3
5
2
1
2

But Cramer's Rule is not practicalfor large problems.

To solve N equations with N unknowns,we need (N 1)(N 1)N!
multiplica tions.
To solve a 30 by 30 system,2.31035 multiplica tions are needed.
A super computer needs more than 1020 years to compute this.
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Methods for Solving Systems of Linear

Equations
o

Naive Gaussian Elimination

Gaussian Elimination with Scaled

Partial Pivoting

Algorithm for Tri-diagonal

Equations

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Curve Fitting

Given a set of data:

x

0.5

10.3

21.3

Select a curve that best fits the data. One

choice is to find the curve so that the sum
of the square of the error is minimized.

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Interpolation

Given a set of data:

xi

yi

0.5

10.3

15.3

Find a polynomial P(x) whose graph

passes through all tabulated points.

yi P( xi ) if xi is in the table
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Methods for Curve Fitting

o

Least Squares
o
o

Linear Regression
Nonlinear Least Squares Problems

Interpolation
o
o

Newton Polynomial Interpolation

Lagrange Interpolation

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Integration

Some functions can be integrated

analytically:
3

1 2
9 1
1 xdx 2 x 1 2 2 4
But many functions have no analytical solutions :
a

x2

dx ?

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Methods for Numerical Integration

o

Upper and Lower Sums

Trapezoid Method

Romberg Method

Gauss Quadrature

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Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations

A solution to the differential equation :
x(t ) 3x (t ) 3x(t ) 0
x (0) 1; x(0) 0
is a function x(t) that satisfies the equations.
* Analytical solutions are available for
special cases only.
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Solution of Partial Differential Equations

Partial Differential Equations are more
difficult to solve than ordinary differential
equations:

u
2

u
2

20

x
t
u (0, t ) u (1, t ) 0, u ( x,0) sin(x)
2

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Summary

Numerical Methods:
Algorithms that are
used to obtain
numerical solution of a
mathematical problem.
We need them when
No analytical solution
exists or it is difficult
to obtain it.

Topics Covered in the Course

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Solution of Nonlinear Equations

Solution of Linear Equations
Curve Fitting
Least Squares
Interpolation

Numerical Integration
Numerical Differentiation
Solution of Ordinary Differential
Equations
Solution of Partial Differential
Equations
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Lecture 2

Number Representation and Accuracy

Number Representation
Normalized Floating Point Representation
Significant Digits
Accuracy and Precision
Rounding and Chopping
Reading Assignment: Chapter 3

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Representing Real Numbers

You are familiar with the decimal system:

312.45 3 102 1101 2 100 4 101 5 102

Decimal System:

Base = 10 , Digits (0,1,,9)

Standard Representations:

3 1 2 . 4 5
sign integral
part
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fraction
part
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Normalized Floating Point Representation

Normalized Floating Point Representation:

d . f1 f 2 f 3 f 4 10 n
sign
mantissa
exponent
d 0,

n : signed exponent

Scientific Notation: Exactly one non-zero digit appears

before decimal point.

Advantage: Efficient in representing very small or very

large numbers.

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Binary System

Binary System:

Base = 2, Digits {0,1}

1. f1 f 2 f 3 f 4 2 n
sign

mantissa

signed exponent

(1.101)2 (1 1 21 0 22 1 23 )10 (1.625)10

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Fact

Numbers that have a finite expansion in one numbering

system may have an infinite expansion in another
numbering system:

(1.1)10 (1.000110011001100...)2

You can never represent 1.1 exactly in binary system.

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IEEE 754 Floating-Point Standard

Single Precision (32-bit representation)

1-bit Sign + 8-bit Exponent + 23-bit Fraction

S Exponent8

Fraction23

Double Precision (64-bit representation)

1-bit Sign + 11-bit Exponent + 52-bit Fraction

S

Exponent11

Fraction52

(continued)

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Significant Digits

Significant digits are those digits that can be

used with confidence.

Single-Precision: 7 Significant Digits

1.175494 10-38 to 3.402823 1038

Double-Precision: 15 Significant Digits

2.2250738 10-308 to 1.7976931 10308

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Remarks

Numbers that can be exactly represented are called

machine numbers.

Difference between machine numbers is not uniform

Sum of machine numbers is not necessarily a machine

number

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Calculator Example

Suppose you want to compute:

3.578 * 2.139
using a calculator with two-digit fractions

3.57

2.13 = 7.60

True answer:
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7.653342
27

Significant Digits - Example

48.9

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Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy is related to the closeness to the true

value.

Precision is related to the closeness to other

estimated values.

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Rounding and Chopping

Rounding: Replace the number by the nearest

machine number.

Chopping: Throw all extra digits.

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Rounding and Chopping

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Error Definitions True Error

Can be computed if the true value is known:

Absolute True Error

Et true value approximation
Absolute Percent Relative Error
true value approximation
t
*100
true value
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Error Definitions Estimated Error

When the true value is not known:

Estimated Absolute Error

Ea currentestimate previous estimate
Estimated Absolute Percent Relative Error
currentestimate previous estimate
a
*100
currentestimate

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Notation
We say that the estimate is correct to n
decimal digits if:
n

Error 10

We say that the estimate is correct to n

decimal digits rounded if:

1
n
Error 10
2
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Summary

Number Representation
Numbers that have a finite expansion in one numbering system
may have an infinite expansion in another numbering system.

Normalized Floating Point Representation

Efficient in representing very small or very large numbers,

Difference between machine numbers is not uniform,
Representation error depends on the number of bits used in
the mantissa.

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Lectures 3-4

Taylor Theorem

Motivation
Taylor Theorem
Examples
Reading assignment: Chapter 4

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Motivation

We can easily compute expressions like:

3 10 2
2( x 4)
But, How do you compute

Can we use the definition

4.1 , sin(0.6) ?

to compute sin(0.6)?
Is this a practical way?

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0.6

38

Remark

In this course, all angles are assumed to

be in radian unless you are told otherwise.

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Taylor Series
The Taylor series expansion of f ( x ) about a :
f ( 2) (a )
f ( 3) ( a )
2
f (a ) f (a ) ( x a )
( x a)
( x a ) 3 ...
2!
3!
or
'

Taylor Series

k 0

1 (k )
f (a ) ( x a )k
k!

If the series converge, we can write :

1 (k )
f ( x ) f (a ) ( x a )k
k!
k 0
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Maclaurin Series

Maclaurin series is a special case of Taylor

series with the center of expansion a = 0.

The Maclaurin series expansion of f ( x ) :

( 3)

( 0 ) 2 f ( 0) 3
f ( 0) f ( 0) x
x
x ...
2!
3!
If the series converge, we can write :
'

( 2)

1 (k )
f ( x ) f ( 0) x k
k!
k 0
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Maclaurin Series Example 1

Obtain Maclaurin series expansion of f ( x ) e x

f ( x) e x

f ( 0) 1

f ' ( x) e x

f ' ( 0) 1

f ( 2) ( x ) e x

f ( 2 ) ( 0) 1

f (k ) ( x) e x

f ( k ) (0) 1 for k 1

k
2
3
1
x
x
x
e x f ( k ) ( 0) x k
1 x

...
k!
k!
2!
3!
k 0
k 0

The series converges for x .

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Taylor Series
3

Example 1
2.5
exp(x)
1+x+0.5x 2
2
1+x
1.5

0.5

0
-1
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-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1
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Maclaurin Series Example 2

Obtain Maclaurin series expansion of f ( x ) sin( x ) :

f ( x ) sin( x )
f ' ( x ) cos( x )

f ( 0) 0
f ' ( 0) 1

f ( 2 ) ( x ) sin( x )

f ( 2 ) ( 0) 0

f ( 3) ( x ) cos( x )

f ( 3) (0) 1

f ( k ) ( 0) k
x3 x5 x7
sin( x )
x x ....
k!
3! 5! 7!
k 0
The series converges for x .
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4
3

2
1

x-x 3/3!+x 5/5!

sin(x)

-1

x-x 3/3!

-2
-3
-4
-4
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-3

-2

-1

4
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Maclaurin Series Example 3

Obtain Maclaurin series expansion of : f ( x) cos(x)

f ( x ) cos( x )
f ' ( x ) sin( x )

f ( 0) 1
f ' ( 0) 0

f ( 2 ) ( x ) cos( x )

f ( 2 ) (0) 1

f ( 3) ( x ) sin( x )

f ( 3) (0) 0

2
4
6
f ( k ) ( 0)
x
x
x
cos( x )
( x ) k 1 ....
k!
2! 4! 6!
k 0

The series converges for x .

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Maclaurin Series Example 4

Obtain Maclaurin series expansion of f(x)
1
1 x
1
f ' ( x)
1 x 2
2
f ( 2) ( x )
1 x 3
6
f ( 3) ( x )
1 x 4
f ( x)

1
1 x

f ( 0) 1

Maclaurin Series Expansion of :

f ' ( 0) 1
f ( 2 ) ( 0) 2
f ( 3) (0) 6
1
1 x x 2 x 3 ...
1 x

Series converges for | x | 1

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Example 4 - Remarks

Can we apply the series for x1??

How many terms are needed to get a good

approximation???

These questions will be answered using

Taylors Theorem.

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Taylor Series Example 5

Obtain Taylor series expansion of f(x)
1
f ( x)
x
1
f ' ( x) 2
x
2
f ( 2) ( x ) 3
x
6
f ( 3) ( x ) 4
x

1
at a 1
x

f (1) 1
f ' (1) 1
f ( 2 ) (1) 2
f ( 3) (1) 6

Taylor Series Expansion ( a 1) : 1 ( x 1) ( x 1) 2 ( x 1) 3 ...

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Taylor Series Example 6

Obtain Taylor series expansion of f(x) ln( x ) at ( a 1)
1
1
2
( 2)
( 3)
f ( x ) ln( x ) , f ' ( x ) , f ( x ) 2 , f ( x ) 3
x
x
x
f (1) 0,

f ' (1) 1,

f ( 2 ) (1) 1

f ( 3) (1) 2

1
2 1
Taylor Series Expansion : ( x 1) ( x 1) ( x 1) 3 ...
2
3

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Convergence of Taylor Series

The Taylor series converges fast (few terms

are needed) when x is near the point of
expansion. If |x-a| is large then more terms
are needed to get a good approximation.

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Taylors Theorem
If a function f ( x ) possesses derivative s of orders 1, 2, ..., ( n 1)
on an interval containing a and x then the value of f ( x ) is given by :

(n+1) terms Truncated

Taylor Series
f ( x)

k 0

f ( k ) (a )
( x a)k
k!

Rn

Remainder
where :
f ( n 1) ( )
Rn
( x a ) n 1 and is between a and x.
( n 1)!
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Taylors Theorem
We can apply Taylor' s theorem for :
1
f(x)
with the point of expansion a 0 if | x | 1.
1 x
If x 1, then the function and its
derivative s are not defined.
Taylor Theorem is not applicable.

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Error Term
To get an idea about the approximation error,
we can derive an upper bound on :
( n 1)

( )
Rn
( x a ) n 1
( n 1)!
for all values of between a and x.
f

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Error Term - Example

How large is the error if we replaced f ( x ) e by
x

the first 4 terms ( n 3) of its Taylor series expansion

at a 0 when x 0.2 ?
f (n) ( x) e x

f ( n ) ( ) e 0.2 for n 1

f ( n 1) ( )
Rn
( x a ) n 1
( n 1)!
e 0.2
n 1
0.2 R3 8.14268E 05
Rn
( n 1)!
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Alternative form of Taylors Theorem

Let f ( x ) have derivative s of orders 1, 2, ..., ( n 1)
on an interval containing x and x h then :
f ( x h)

k 0

(k )

( x) k
h Rn
k!

( h step size)

( n 1)

( ) n 1
Rn
h
where is between x and x h
( n 1)!
f

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Taylors Theorem Alternative forms

( n 1)
f ( k ) (a )
f
( )
k
f ( x)
( x a)
( x a ) n 1
k!
( n 1)!
k 0
n

where is between a and x.

a x, x x h
f ( k ) ( x ) k f ( n 1) ( ) n 1
f ( x h)
h
h
k!
( n 1)!
k 0
n

where is between x and x h.

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Mean Value Theorem

If f ( x ) is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b]
and its derivative is defined on the open interval ( a, b)
then there exists ( a, b)
f(b) f(a)
f ' ( )
ba
Proof : Use Taylor' s Theorem for n 0, x a, x h b
f(b) f(a) f ' ( ) (b a )
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Alternating Series Theorem

Consider the alternating series :
S a1 a2 a3 a4
a a a a
2
3
4
1
If and
lim a 0
n n

The series converges

then
and

S S n an 1

S n : Partial sum (sum of the first n terms)

an 1 : First omitted term
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Alternating Series Example

1 1 1
sin(1) can be computedusing : sin(1) 1
3! 5! 7!
This is a convergentalternating series since :
a1 a2 a3 a4 and lim an 0
n

Then :
1 1
sin(1) 1
3! 5!
1 1 1
sin(1) 1
3! 5! 7!
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Example 7
Obtain the Taylor series expansion
of f ( x ) e 2 x 1 at a 0.5 (the center of expansion)
How large can the error be when ( n 1) terms are used
to approximate e 2 x 1 with x 1 ?

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Example 7 Taylor Series

Obtain Taylor series expansion of f ( x ) e 2 x 1 , a 0.5
f ( x) e 2 x 1
f ' ( x) 2e 2 x 1
f ( 2) ( x) 4e 2 x 1
f ( k ) ( x) 2 k e 2 x 1
e

2 x 1

f (0.5) e 2
f ' (0.5) 2e 2
f ( 2) (0.5) 4e 2
f ( k ) (0.5) 2 k e 2

f ( k ) (0.5)

( x 0.5) k
k!
k 0
2
k
(
x

0
.
5
)
(
x

0
.
5
)
e 2 2e 2 ( x 0.5) 4e 2
... 2 k e 2
...
2!
k!

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Example 7 Error Term

f ( k ) ( x) 2 k e 2 x 1
f ( n 1) ( )
Error
( x 0.5) n 1
(n 1)!
Error 2

n 1 2 1

(1 0.5) n 1
(n 1)!

n 1
(
0
.
5
)
Error 2 n 1
max e 2 1
(n 1)! [ 0.5,1]

e3
Error
(n 1)!
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