CHAPTER 2:

CELL STRUCTURE
AND
CELL

WHATS MADE UP OUR

BODY?

ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL

Cell are basic units of living organisms.

The living component of a cell is called

protoplasm.

The protoplasm is made up of the cytoplasm

and nucleus.

The cytoplasm contains small structures called

organelles-(cellular components)

Most of the organelles can only be seen using

an electron microscopes-(electron micrograph)

Organelles are cellular components

Each organelles is membrane-bound in

order to maintain its internal environment
to perform specific function.

Cellular components can be classified as

either organelles or non-organelles

CELLULAR
COMPONENTS

ORGANELLES:
Nucleus

NON-ORGANELLES:

Mitochondria
Ribosomes

Plasma membrane

Vacoules

Cytoplasm

Endoplasmic

Cell wall(plant cell

reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Centrioles (animal
cells only)
Chloroplast(plant cell

only)

Cellular
compone
nts

STRUCTURES

FUNCTIONS
Controls all
activities of the
cell
Nucleolus is
involved in the

NUCLE
US

synthesis of
ribosomes and
ribonucleic acid
(RNA)

Cellular

STRUCTURES

FUNCTIONS

Components

Sites of cellular
respiration
Enzymes
Mitochon
dria

involved in
cellular
respiration help
to oxidise
glucose to
release energy in
the form of ATP
(adenosine
triphosphate)

CELLULAR
COMPONEN
TS

Endoplas
mic
Reticulu
m (ER)

STRUCTURE

FUNCTIONS
2 types:
-Rough ER (RER)
which has
ribosomes on its
surface
-Smooth ER(SER)
which has no
ribosomes
RER transports
proteins
sythesised by
ribosemes
SER synthesis
lipids

CELLULAR
COMPONEN
TS

STRUCTURE

FUNCTIONS
At as a centre
for processing,
packaging, and

Golgi
Apparatu
s

transporting
macromolecules;
protein and
carbohydrates
Transport
vesicles from the
RER fuse with the
membrane of the
Golgi appratus

CELLULAR
COMPONEN
TS

STRUCTURE

FUNCTIONS

Sites for protein

synthesis
Attached to RER or

Ribosom
es

exist as free
organelles in the
cytoplasm

CELLULAR
COMPONEN
TS

STRUCTURE

FUNCTION

Break down
macromoleules;
protein, lipids
and
polysaccharides
Lysosom
e

CELLULAR

STRUCTURE

FUNCTIONS

COMPONEN
TS

Vacoule

Cell sap is a fluid which

contains sugars, salts,
amino acids and waste
substances
Bound by a
semipermeable
membrane called
tonoplast
Store food substances;
sugar and amino
acid
Spherical or oval

Site for waste products

shape sacs filled

with cell sap

Regulate water
balance in cell

CELLULAR

STRUCTURE

FUNCTIONS

COMPONEN
T

Exist in pair near

the nucleus
Small cylindrical
structures
Centriol

Form spindle fibres

es

during cell division

Synthesis cilia and
flagella of small
organisms.

CELLULAR

STRUCTURE

FUNCTION

COMPONEN
TS

Chlorpla

Disc shape

st (in

organelles bounded

green

by 2-membrane

plants)

Has orderly stacks

of grana on stroma
Granum contains
chlorophyll
Site for
photosynthesis
Chlorophyll traps
light energy for
photosynthesis

CELLULAR

STRUCTURE

FUNCTIONS

COMPONENT
S

Jelly-like medium
Place where
Cytoplas

biochemical reaction

occur
Found between the
plasma membrane
and the nucleus.
Contains organic
and inorganic
substances

CELLULAR

STRUCTURE

FUNCTIONS

COMPONEN
TS

Thin, semipermeable
membrane
Plasma

Consists of protein
and phospholipids

membran
e

Outer boundary of
cell
Regulates and
controls the
movement of
substances
Protects the cell by
separating the
contents of the cell

CELLULAR
COMPONEN
T

Cell wall
(in plant
cell
only)

STRUCTURE

FUNCTIONS

Rigid outer layer of

plant cell which is
made up of cellulose
fibres
Permeable
Maintains the shape
of the cell
Protects the cell
from bursting
Give support to cell

Comparing and contrasting

ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL

SIMILARITIES

Both animal and plant cell have

plasma membrane, cytoplasm,
nucleus. Endoplasmic reticulum.
Golgi apparatus, ribosomes and
mitochondria
Diffrences

Animal cell

Not fixed

Plant cell

SHAPE

Fixed

Absent

CELL WALL

Present

Absent

CHLOROPLAS Present
T

If present, are
small and
scattered
throughout the
cell

VACOULE

Has one or a few

large vacoule(s) filled
with cell sap

Present

LYSOSOME

Normally absent

Present

CENTRIOLE

Absent

Carbohydrates are
stored in the form
of glycogen
granules

FOOD
STORAGE

Carbohydrates are
stored in the form of
starch grains

Plants and animal are made up of

different types of cell
Different cells carry out different
functions
The density of certain organelles in a
specific cell is related to its function

Example:

Many chloroplast
found in
palisade
mesophyll
for photosynthesis

Types of Cell

Function

Density of certain
organelles

Sperm cell

To swim towards
fallopian tubes to
fertilise the ovum

Mitohondria

Flight muscle
cell in
insects and
birds

Contraction and
relaxation of
muscles provide
movement and
locomotion

Mitochondria

Cells in
meristem

Divide actively to
produce new cells
for growth

Mitohondria

Goblet cells
in
respiratory
tract

Secrete mucus

Golgi apparatus

Liver cell

Detoxification of
drugs

SER

Pancreatic

Produce enzymes

RER & Golgi

POP QUIZ.(@,@)

Name 3 organelles of an animal cell

Name an organelles which is found in

abundance in muscle cell

Name the organelles based on the descriptions:

a)

Site for protein synthesis

b)

Smooth outer membrane and inner folded

membrane

c)

Controls activities of the cell

Animal Cell

Plant Cell

CELL ORGANISATION

Organisms which are made up of only one cell

are called unicellular organisms.

Unicellular organisms carry living processes

within cell.

Amoeba

Structure
Does not have
definite shape
Enclosed by plasma
membrane
Food vacuoles and
contractile vacuoles
are found in
cytoplasm
Has a nucleus

Habitat
Freshwater environment such as in lakes and ponds
Soil water
Some are parasitic

Reproduction

Reproduce asexually
Binary fission during
favourable conditions
Formation of spore
during unfavourable
conditions

Respiration
oxygen

CO2

Exchange respiration
gases through the
plasma membrane by
diffusion

Locomotion
Moves by extending the pseudopodium to
the direction it wants to move.
Pseudopodia is known as false feet
Cytoplasm flows into the extended
pseudopodium
Other pseudopodia not involved are
withdrawn
Type of movement is known as amoeboid
movement.

Feeds
on bacteria, algae and other
Feeding
microoganisms
Feeds through phagocytosis
process
Pseudopida extend to sorround
food engulfing it to form food
vacuole
Enzymes are secreted to digest
the food
Digested food is absorbed while
undigested
the
is expelled.
Excretion
Osmoregulation is carried out by contractile vacuole.
Water enters and is collected in the contractile vacuole
Contractile vacuole contracts to expel its contents when it
reaches maximum size
Waste substances are excreted by diffusion through the
plasma
membrane.to stimuli
Response
It moves towards favourable stimuli such as food
It moves away from unfavourable stimuli such as acidic or
alkaline solutions, bright light and high temperatures.

Multicellular organisms begin life

as a single cell, a zygote which is
formed when an ovum is fertilised
by a sperm.
The zygote divides repeatedly to
form identical cells which
eventually forms ball of cells
known as embryo.
The cell of the embryo undergo
growth, adaptation and
differentiation.
Different types of cells are
adapted to carry out specific

Cell

Function
Transports oxygen

Transmits nerve impuls

Contracts and relaxes to produce movement

Defend the body against pathogens

Swims to fertilise the ovum

Cell Organisation in Multicellular

Cell specialisation is important as

multicellular organisms are complex
with many cell.
Specific cell can carry out their
functions efficiently and effectively.
The different level of cell
organisation that make up a
multicellular organism are:

TISSUE

There are four main type of tissues in

animals:
a) Epithelial tissue
b) Muscle tissue
c) Nerve tissue
d) Connective tissue

Epithelial Tissue
Allow
efficient
exchange of
respiratory
gases

Absorb nutrients
Secretes digestive
enzyms
Modified goblet cell
secretes mucus

Modified structure called

cilia sweep away pollutants
from lung
Goblet cell secretes mucus
to trap air particles

Protects the underlying

tissues and organ
Prevents dehydration of
the skin
Regulate body temp
Secretes sweat and

Muscle Tissue
Attached to
bones
Involved in
voluntary
actions
Contract to
move the bones
of the body

Found at the
walls of the heart
Contract to pump
blood out of the
heart to pats of
the body
This is an
involuntary
actions

Found in walls
of hollow organs
such as stomach,
intestine,
bladder and
blood vessel
Responsible for
involuntary
actions
For
example;contrac
tion of smooth
muscle along the
digestive tract
moves the food

Nerve Tissue

Consists of nerve cells

called neurons.
3 types of neurones;
a)Afferent neurones
b)Interneurones
c)Efferent neurones
Transmit nerve
impulses in order to
coordinate body
activities

Connective Tissue

Stores fat
Insulates the
body
Thightly packed
cells in the
dermis of the
cell

Forms flexible and

strong tissues
Between bones
Act like cushion
Forms the shape of
organ such as ear and
nose

Densely
paked
collagen
fibres
which
form
tendons
and
ligament
s

Found in the
spaces between
organ
Binds organ

Consists of
blood plasma;
red blood cell,
white blood cell
and platelets

Cells are
hardened
by
calcium
Protects
the organ
Provide
support
Involved
in body
movemen
t

ORGANS

A group of different tissues

working together to perform a
specific function forms an organ.

SYSTEMS

A system consists of a group of organs

working together to carry out a major living
process such as respiration, digestion,
reproduction, etc.

ORGANIMS

All systems combine to form a multicellular organism

These systems work together for the organism to survive
For example, digestive system brings in nutrients,
respiratory system brings in oxygen and eliminates carbon
dioxide.

Cell Organisation in Plant

Plant
Tissue
Permenant
Tissue

Meristemic
Tissue
Aprical
Meristem
Root apex
Shoot apex

Lateral
meristems
cambium

Epiderma
l tissue

Vascula
r tissue

Groun
d
tissue

xylem

parenchy
ma

phloe
m

sclerenhy
ma
collenchy
ma

MERISTEMIC TISSUE
Small cells with large nucleus, no vacuoles and thin walls
Actively dividing to produce new cells for growth
Apical Meristem

Lateral Meristem (cambium)

Found between the xylem and
phloem tissues
Responsible for secondary growth
which increase the circumference
of the stem and root by adding the
secondary tissue.

PERMENANT TISSUES
Consists of:
Mature tissues that are undergoing differentiation
Mature tissues which are already differentiated
They can be categorised into epidermal tissue, vascular tissue and
ground tissue

EPIDERMAL TISSUE
Cover the surfaces of leaves, stems, roots,
flowers, fruits and seeds.
Made up of one layer flat cell which have large
vacuole

Protects the underlying tissues

Cuticle reduces loss of water through
transpiration

Epidermal cells
modified to from root
hair

Guard cells control the opening and

closing of stoma.

Epidermal cells are

modified to form
root hair

Root hairs help in the absorption of

water and minerals

VASCULAR TISSUES
Involved in the transport of water and other substances in the plant
Two types of vascular tissues, xylem tissue and phloem tissue
Has lignified walls
Long, hollow tube from the roots to
the leaves and shoots
Transport water and mineral salts
from the root to the leaves
Provides mechanical support to
the plant

Consists of elonagted living cell

connect end to end to form a tube
with a sieve plate
Transport organic nutrients such as
carbohydrates from the leaves to
other parts.

GROUND TISSUE
Fills up the spaces between the epidermis and vasulat tissues
3 types; parenchyma, collenhcyma and sclerenchyma
Thin-walled cells with large vacuoles
Loosely arranged with spaces
between them.
Carries out photosynthesis
Stores food materials
Provides support to plant
Polygonal cells with uneven cellulose
cell wall
Provide support for young plants and
herbaceous or non-woody plants

Uneven cells walls thickened by

lignin
Die when matured
Provides support and mechanical
strength to plant.

REGULATING THE INTERNAL

ENVIRONMENT
The intercellular space between
cells is filled with a fluid called
the interstitial fluid.
The interstitial fluid forms the
internal environment of an
organism.
The internal environment is the
environment within the body of
an organism.
The cells obtain the substances

Necessity:
The internal environment must be
maintained at a relatively
constant level to meet the needs
of the cells to perform optimally
The internal environment is
Internal
affected by the:

Environment

Physical Factors
Temperature
Blood pressure
Osmotic pressure

Chemical Factors
pH
Blood glucose level
Salt level

The physical and chemical factors of

the internal environment are
regulated by a process called
HOMEOSTASIS.
Homeostasis is a process in which the
chemical and physical factors of the
internal environment are regulated
so that the conditions are maintained
at a relatively constant level for the
optimal functions of cells.
Homeostasis is carried out by means
of the NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
MECHANISM.

Importance:

To ensure optimal conditions for

cellular activities.
Enables organisms to survive in
extreme conditions.
Allows enzyme-catalysed reactions
to function optimally
Allows organisms to carry out
metabolic activities according to
their needs.
Allows physiological and metabolic
activities to continue even though

Regulatory System In Plants

Most plant cells are dead cells which do not

carry out biochemical reactions.
Living cells obtain oxygen and carbon dioxide
from the environment which have diffused into
the spaces between the cells.
Water and mineral salts are transported by
xylem tissues and aided by natural factors such
as capillary action and transpiration pull.
Plant cell have cell walls that prevent cells from
rupturing when excess water moves in by
osmosis.
Plant cells have vacuoles to store waste
substances before they are transformed into
non-toxic substances to be excreted.

THE END~