TRAN3001

Highway Engineering Lecture 4

Horizontal Curves
Intersections
Highway Safety Appurtenances

Horizontal Curves
Sight Distance
The radius of curvature determined from
consideration of frictional resistance and
superelevation may not be sufficient to provide
the required horizontal stopping sight distance.
Where it is not possible to remove obstructions
the road may need to be re-aligned to satisfy
the sight distance requirements for safety.
The sight distance required may lie wholly
within the horizontal curve or may be greater
than the length of curve available.

Horizontal Curves (Contd)

.

x
D

obstruction
E
l
A

M
l
A

C
M
B

B
R

Sight distance greater than

Sight distance within
curve
curve
AB is the sight distance
ACB is the length required for sight distance

Horizontal Curves (Contd)

Sight Distance (Contd)
The length (L) required for sight
distance (S) can be approximated by
the chords AC and CB.
Where the sight distance is within the
curve,
R2 = x2 + (R M)2
x2 = (S/2)2 M2
R2 = S2/4 M2 + R2 - 2RM + M2
M = S2/8R

Horizontal Curves (Contd)

Sight Distance (Contd)
Where the sight distance is greater than the available
length of curve, it will overlap for a distance (l) onto the
tangents on either side of the curve.
S = L + 2l
l =S-L
2
(S/2)2 = x2 + M2
x2 = d2 (R M)2
d2 = S L 2 + R 2
2
M = L (2S L)/8R (for S = L this becomes
M=
S2/8R)

Horizontal Curves (Contd)

Widening of Circular Curves
An extra width of carriageway is required on
the curved sections over and above that on
the tangent sections of the highway.
The primary reason for the widening is that a
vehicle turning around a curve occupies more
road space than a vehicle proceeding straight.
There is also a tendency for drivers to steer
away from the edges of the carriageway and
move closer to the opposite lane or median.

Horizontal Curves (Contd)

Widening of Circular Curves (Contd)
It is good practice to provide the same
amount of extra width on the curved
sections of dual carriageways as on 2 lane
roads to maintain the high standard of
geometric design required.
More widening is required on sharper
curves with circular curves of radius (R)
less than 150 m having a recommended
increase of 1.6 m per 10m width of
carriageway. For flatter curves of 300 m

Horizontal Curves (Contd)

Transition Curves
The purpose of a transition curve is to allow a
safe and comfortable change from a tangent
(infinite radius of curvature) to a circular curve.
This is a particular concern for high speed
vehicles on roads with sharp curves as motorists
would tend to cut corners and veer onto the
adjoining lane.
Proper use of transition curves will provide a
gradual increase and decrease of the centrifugal
force as the vehicle enters and leaves the circular
curve.

Horizontal Curves (Contd)

Transition Curves (Contd)
This means that the radius of
curvature must decrease gradually
from the tangent-transition
intersection to the transition-circle
intersection.
The spiral is commonly used as it not
only satisfies the above and aesthetic
criteria but is also easy to set out.
Spiral transition curves are most

Horizontal Curves (Contd)

transition curve
SC CS
PC

original circular curve

PT
ST

TS

TS = TangentSpiral Intersection
Intersection
SC = Spiral-Curve Intersection
Tangent Intersection

CS = Curve-Spiral
ST = Spiral-

Horizontal Curves (Contd)

The effect of using the spirals is to shift the circular
portion of the curve inwards.
The distance from the TS to the SC (and CS to ST ) is
the length of the transition Ls .
As a vehicle travels along the transition curve its radial
acceleration changes from zero at TS to v2 /Rc at SC.
The transition length over which this takes place is
equal to the product of the vehicle speed v and the
travel time t.
Ls(m) = v (m/s) x t(s)
t = Ls
v

Horizontal Curves (Contd)

If C is the rate of gain of radial acceleration
C = (v2/Rc)/t
= (v2/Rc)/(Ls /v)

Ls = v3/CRc
= V3 (km/h) /3.63 CRc
= V3/47CRc
Recommended values of C range from
0.3 to 0.6 m/sec3.

Intersections
Intersections, which are places where
at least two roads meet, have a
considerable impact on road safety
and efficiency and their design should
aim to reduce the risk of accidents
and to maximize traffic speed and
flow.
Intersections can be separated into
two categories:
at-grade intersections

Intersections (Contd)
At-grade intersections occur where roads meet
at the same level and intersections where
roads cross at different levels are defined as
grade-separated.
At-grade intersections
These can be further sub-divided into nonchannelized or channelized intersections. The
latter describes the separation of traffic,
through the use of raised traffic islands or
pavement markings, into streams, each of
which is confined to a single roadway channel.

Intersections (Contd)
At-grade intersections (Contd)
Usually intersections are flared, i.e. more than
the normal carriageway width is provided at the
junction of the intersecting roads, to cater for
the traffic manoeuvres.
There are basically five (5) types of these
intersections and the basic manoeuvres involved
are merging, diverging and cutting which are
referred to as conflicts since the paths of (at
least) two vehicles or a vehicle and a pedestrian
can come into contact in legal manoeuvres.

Intersections (Contd)
At-grade intersections (Contd)

Tee

Wye

Cross (Straight or skewed)

Staggered (Straight or skewed)

Multi-way

Intersections (Contd)
main road flow
minor road
flow

Merging

Diverging

Cutting and Merging

Diverging

Cutting

Cutting and

Intersections (Contd)
At-grade intersections (Contd)
On high speed, high volume roads acceleration and
deceleration lanes are provided at intersections and used
exclusively by vehicles entering and leaving the highway.
This is a safety feature as well as a means of facilitating
traffic flow on the main road.
Without deceleration lanes vehicles leaving the highway
would have to slow down in a high speed traffic lane, risking
collisions and reducing traffic flow.
Acceleration lanes enable vehicles entering the highway to
build up speed and where it is not possible to join the main
road because of heavy traffic, vehicles can remain on this
lane while awaiting gaps in the traffic stream. Both safety
and traffic flow are again enhanced.

Intersections (Contd)
At-grade intersections (Contd)
At priority intersections one (major) road takes
precedence over another (minor) road, as indicated
by road signs and markings.
Little or no delay should be caused to traffic on the
main/major road as the minor road traffic only
enters the major road when there are gaps in the
flow of traffic.
At uncontrolled intersections (no major/ minor
road) as occurs particularly in some rural and
residential areas with low traffic flows, priority is
assigned to the vehicle that first enters the
intersection.

Intersections (Contd)
At-grade intersections (Contd)
A signalized intersection has a traffic signal
installation comprising a controller, a traffic light
set which emits coloured lights (green, amber and
red) and usually also includes a sensor installed in
the carriageway.
A sensor is basically a coil of wire (inductor) and a
vehicle that passes over one will cause a change in
the inductance of the coil which will be detected by
the controller.
The lights respond to programmed instructions,
including a combination of timing and sensor data,
contained in the controller.

Intersections (Contd)
At-grade intersections (Contd)
Traffic signals may be fixed-time or
vehicle- actuated.
Under fixed-time operations the traffic
signals
will display green to
each approach at the same time
every cycle regardless of the traffic
conditions.
This can only be adequate in heavily
congested areas.

Intersections (Contd)
At-grade intersections (Contd)
Where a lightly trafficked side road is
one of the approaches, unnecessary
build up of traffic can occur on the
other roads in some cycles if there are
no vehicles waiting on the side road as
the time could be better allocated to a
busier approach.
The vehicle-actuated is the more
common mode of operation for traffic
signals as account is taken of the

Intersections (Contd)
At-grade intersections (Contd)
While minimum and maximum green times are
specified in the controller, the flow of traffic is
registered through the sensor and processed by the
controller which then allocates the green time in
the most appropriate way, extending to the
maximum as required based on the number of
vehicles passing the detector.
Traffic lights at junctions with lightly trafficked side
streets may be programmed to turn green only
when a vehicle is detected. Pedestrian crossing
facilities within junctions often operate only when
actuated to ensure that traffic is only stopped when
a pedestrian is waiting to cross.

Intersections (Contd)
At-grade intersections (Contd)
Roundabouts comprise a central
island which is usually raised and
priority is given to circulating traffic,
so vehicles wishing to enter the
roundabout must wait for gaps in the
flow of traffic already in the
roundabout.
Roundabouts require vehicles to
merge on entry and diverge when

Intersections (Contd)
At-grade intersections (Contd)

Roundabout

Intersections (Contd)
At-grade intersections (Contd)
Roundabouts can be considered as a type of
channelized intersection as vehicles are
guided into a one-way traffic stream which
moves in a clockwise direction (Trinidad &
Tobago) around the central island.
Roundabouts are best suited to intersections
with four or more approach roads. Greater
land area is generally required when
compared to other at-grade intersections
handling the same volume of traffic. Costs

Intersections (Contd)
At-grade intersections (Contd)
Channelization, whereby traffic
streams are separated and each
stream is confined to a single
roadway, facilitates safety at
intersections as conflict areas and
angles are controlled and thereby
reduced.
While road markings are used to
direct traffic streams, raised islands

Intersections (Contd)

conflict
reduced conflict
area
better
angle
angle
of conflict

Intersections (Contd)
Grade-separated intersections
Generally grade-separated intersections
have large initial costs when compared to
at-grade intersections but there are
circumstances when their use can be
justified.
Where two major heavily trafficked
highways are designed to cross, an atgrade intersection may be unable to handle
the volume of traffic safely and efficiently,
resulting in significant delays at the

Intersections (Contd)
Grade-separated intersections
Existing, continuous traffic bottlenecks at
intersections at-grade and the resultant
economic losses can indicate that grade
separation is needed to provide the
increased capacity required.
Land use and topography can make a
grade-separated intersection a feasible
alternative as the earthworks, etc. required
for an at-grade intersection may be
expensive and the cost/value of any extra

Intersections (Contd)
Grade-separated intersections (Contd)
Grade-separated intersections may be
designed for roads to cross over each other
without any interconnection between them.
In urban and rural areas this type of
intersection is used to reduce delays and
conflicts and traffic is moved along to
strategic points where roadways are
connected.
Turning traffic is thereby restricted to a few
locations where adequate facilities can be

Intersections (Contd)
Grade-separated intersections (Contd)
An interchange is a grade-separated
intersection where interconnecting
ramps are provided to allow
interchange of traffic between two or
more roads on different levels.
There are many types of interchanges,
ranging from 3-way (Tee/Trumpet or
Wye) to multi-way (more than four

Intersections (Contd)
Grade-separated intersections
(Contd)
Examples of 4-way interchanges are the
Diamond and the Cloverleaf, so named
because of their appearance.
The Diamond consists of a single bridge
and four one way interconnecting ramps,
making it the simplest type of interchange.
It is used at the intersection of a major
highway and a local road and has the
advantage of needing a relatively narrow

Intersections (Contd)
Grade-separated intersections
(Contd)
Traffic signals or other means of
control is generally required where the
ramps meet the minor road.
The Cloverleaf, which is often used at
the junction of two high speed, high
volume highways has eight ramps,
four of which are loop ramps which
handle the right turning movements

Intersections (Contd)
Grade-separated intersections (Contd)
There is only one bridge, but a relatively
large area of land is required for this type of
intersection as the loop ramps must go
through 270 degrees of rotation.
Larger radii for the loops allow higher
speeds and increased capacity as a result of
better traffic flow. While smaller loops
require less land area this comes at the
economic cost of slower speeds and reduced
capacity and may even be hazardous for
larger commercial vehicles.

Intersections (Contd)

Diamond

Cloverleaf

Highway Safety
Appurtenances
Median barriers
Median barriers are longitudinal
barriers used to separate opposing
directions of traffic on a divided
highway.
While these barriers may not reduce
the frequency of crashes they can
help to prevent a median crash from
becoming a crossover collision.
Median barriers must be designed to

Highway Safety Appurtenances

(Contd)
Roadside/Bridge barriers
Barriers at the sides of roads and bridges
are used to protect traffic from hazards,
such as slopes steep enough to cause
rollover crashes, fixed objects like bridge
piers and bodies of water.
Barrier systems
Among the factors involved in selection of a
barrier system are the types of vehicles
using the roadway, the roadway geometry,
and the potential severity of a crash.

Highway Safety Appurtenances

(Contd)
Barrier systems (Contd)
There are three basic categories of barriers:
rigid barriers, semi-rigid barriers and
flexible barriers.
Rigid barriers
Precast and insitu concrete barriers are the
most common type of rigid barrier in use
today.
While the initial cost of installation can be
relatively high, concrete barriers are known
for their relatively maintenance-free

Highway Safety Appurtenances

(Contd)
Barrier systems (Contd)
Rigid barriers (Contd)
One drawback is that crashes associated
with rigid barriers may result in more severe
injuries because, relative to other barrier
systems, a rigid system absorbs the least
energy in a crash.
Concrete barrier systems have proven to be
highly effective in locations with high speed,
high volume traffic. They also work well in
places with heavy truck traffic and in areas

Highway Safety Appurtenances

(Contd)
Barrier Systems (Contd)
Semi-Rigid barriers
Commonly referred to as guardrails or
guiderails, semi-rigid barriers typically
consist of connected segments of metal
railing supported by posts and blocks.
Guardrail systems are designed to absorb
energy during a crash and the entire
assembly moves or deflects during an
impact.
In comparison to rigid barriers, semi-rigid
barriers can be less costly to install, however,

Highway Safety Appurtenances

(Contd)
Barrier Systems (Contd)
Cable barriers
A typical cable barrier consists of
multiple steel cables that are
connected to a series of posts. These
systems are considered to be the
most versatile and forgiving barrier
systems available for reducing the
severity of crashes.
Cable median barriers minimize the

Highway Safety Appurtenances

(Contd)
Barrier Systems (Contd)
Cable barriers
In comparison to rigid and semi-rigid barrier
systems, cable barrier systems generally
have a lower installation cost.
Like guardrails, they typically require
maintenance after a crash, and therefore can
also have increased lifecycle costs.
Research has found that adding a fourth
cable to the generic three-cable design of
this system and tensioning the cables after

Highway Safety Appurtenances

(Contd)
Shoulder Rumble Strips
A shoulder rumble strip is a
longitudinal design feature installed on
a paved roadway shoulder near the
travel lane.
It is made of a series of indented or
raised elements intended to alert
inattentive drivers through vibration
and sound that their vehicles have left
the carriageway.