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Electronic Materials
Fall 2015
WEEK 2
Derivation
Consider N molecules inside
a cubic volume of side a
The change in momentum of
a molecule that collides
with one of the walls is
Force exerted by gas on a
wall is equal to the rate of
change in momentum
The total pressure is equal to
the total force per unit area
Nmv
P
3V
p 2mv x
p 2mv x
mv x2
F
t (2a )
a
vx
P
2
2
2
2
mv x2
mv x3
.... mv xN
Total force mv x1
mN v x2
a2
a3
a3
Derivation
Compare
Nmv 2 2 1
PV
N
mv 2
2
3
3
N
RT
PV
NA
where k is Boltzmans
constant
Therefore
the mean square velocity is
proportional to T! adding
heat to a gas raises its
temperature and total
internal energy!
Rise in internal energy per
unit temperature HEAT
1
3 R
3
2
KE mv
T kT
2
2 NA
2
Heat Capacity
... Energy (U) increase per
unit temperature (T)
dU
C
dT
3
1
2
U NA mv NAkT
2
2
C
dU 3
3
NAk R
dT 2
2
Maxwells Principle of
Equipartition of Energy
Ix=0
... assigns 1/2kT to each
independent way
(degrees of freedom) a
molecule can absorb
energy
vz
vx
x
z
Iz
For example:
3 degrees of freedom
5 degrees of freedom
z
U 3 kT
2
U 5 kT
x v
y
2
(a)
Iy
yaxisoutofpaper
Degrees of Freedom:
Monatomic gas 3 translational
Diatomic gas 5 3 + 2 rotational
Solid 6 3 kinetic energy of vibration +
3 potential energy of spring i.e. bond stretching
therefore Cm=3R
vavlarger values
Velocities from zero1.5
(at collision) to
vrms
1
1000K
(727C)
The Velocity Distribution is described by
the
MaxwellBoltzmann distribution
function
0.5
0
500
1000
Speed(m/s)
m
nv 4 N
2 kT
2
mv
2kT
v 2e
1500
2000
1
2
kT
nE
Ce
N
E
kT
1
2
E e
nE
kT
AverageKEat T1.
T1
AverageKEat T2
T2 > T1
EA
Energy, E
kT
A*
U = P E (x )
U
A*
U A= U
A*
B
D is p la c e m e n t
O '
A fte r N ju m p s
L
Y
a
q = 90
q = 0
q = 180
q = 270
Fig 1.30
D DO e
EA
kT
L 2Dt
Equilibrium Concentration of
Vacancies
also a thermally activated process
E v
nv N exp
kT
nv = vacancy concentration
N = number of atoms per unit volume
Ev = vacancy formation energy
Liquidus
Solidus
Isotherm or Tie
line
Melting Point
100% Cu
100% Ni
Phase Diagram
Liquid
LIQUID
SO
LID
US
L0
1300
L0:
all liquid
L1:
S(36%Ni)
nucleation begins
L1
S1
1200
what is the composition of the L(20%Ni)
solid?
L2
X
S2
go to S1
L
3
(28%Ni)
S3
what is the composition of the S
SOLID
(13%
N
i)
L
(-PHASE)
liquid?
1100
go to L1
S4
X:
S(20%Ni)
both solid and liquid
what are the compositions of the
1000
solid and liquid?
0
20
40
60
go to S2 and L2
wt.%Ni
PureCu C0
what fraction is solid and what
fraction is liquid?
C CO 0.28 0.20
Use Lever Rule
WL S
53.3%
C
C
0.28
0.13
S3:
S
L
opposite of L1; i.e. nearly all
solid!
C CL 0.20 0.13
What is the composition of the
WS O
46.7%
CS CL 0.28 0.13
solid and liquid?
go to S3 and L3
TEMPERATURE(C)
L(20%Ni)
LIQ
UI
DU
S
What Happens @
400
L
L IQ U ID
M
N
300
+ L
Eutectic
Point/Temperature:
Composition of alloy
that results in the
lowest melting point
temperature
TWO solid phases
(different
compositions and
Structures):
Pb-rich and Sn rich
200
S O L ID U S
C
18 3 C
1 9 .2 %
L+
S O L ID U S D
6 1 .9 %
Q '
9 7 .5 %
100
SO L ID U S
R'
R ''
0
0
P ure P b
20
40
60
80
C o m p o s it io n in w t .% S n
100
P u re S n
;
a;
begin
Composition
content
nucleation
to form
of the
ofbegins;
a?
alloy? (L
i.e.+ a);
liquid
composition:
10%
Sn
small
what
Composition
fraction
amount
of
is
ofa-phase
and
fraction
is L?
What
Composition:
Whatis
are
the
the
composition
10%
compositions?
Sn 4 0what
of
the
last
drops
of
0
What
is the
liquid?
L
L
composition of
A
What
USE
3%
Sn
LEVER
isthe
98%
RULE
Sn
the -phase?
L IQ U ID
M
300
N
composition
C
ofL
O
a=0.07
Go across to the
B
the
How
-phase?
much
is
?
+
L
C
solidus
line and
L=0.15
L+
E
SO L ID U S
200
S O L ID U S
S O L ID U S D
C
read
it!
0.07
P
And
how
much
is
a?
18 3C
9 7 .5 %
1 9 .2 %
6 1 .9 %
CO=0.10
Q '
Q
Go
to the
Whatacross
is the
100
composition
of and
solvus
USE
LEVER
line
RULE
the L-phase?
read it!
R ''
R' R
CO Ca 0.10 0.07
W
the
37.5%
Go
across
to
L
C
C
0.98
0.10
0.07 92.6%
a O 0.15
W CL Cline
liquidus
and
C C 0.98 0.03
read it! 0.015
W
0S
Pure Pb
CO CL 0.20 0.13
40
46.7%
60
80
100
CS 20 CL C o 0.28
0.13
P
u
re S n
m p o s it io n in w t .% S n
Lever Rule
Lever Rule: a tool to determine
% wt of each phase of a binary
equilibrium phase diagram.
End of Chapter 01
Excluded Book Sections
1.3.6
1.4.2
1.6
1.8.3
1.9.4, 1.9.5
1.10
1.11
1.13
Suggested Example Problems
1.2, 1.7, 1.12, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, 1.16, 1.17