This document is for discussion purposes only and is

not a statement of Government policy

Young People in England

An evidence discussion paper

Young People Analysis & Strategic Analysis

Department for Children, Schools and Families

Contents

Introduction
Context Trends in Youth Development
Drivers in Successful Youth Transitions
Where Policy Intervenes
Principles from the Evidence

This is a review of adolescence in contemporary England,

viewed through a developmental perspective.

Introduction

We will
Look at the demands from
employers of new labour
market entrants.

Look at the expectations of

society from new adults.

What attributes do
adolescents need to develop?
Further
We take stock of how adolescents develop the skills for adulthood, and explain the
challenges they encounter.
We define the role of Government in supporting the development of young people.
We consider whether the fact that the lives of young people are changing rapidly matters
for adolescent development, or has significant policy implications.

Introduction

Structure of Report

Trends

As a starting point, we briefly review aspects of young peoples world that

have undergone significant and relevant change.

Drivers

The main body of this report discusses the drivers of successful

youth transitions into adulthood. What development is required to
exploit opportunities? And which factors influence that
development? And how do they operate?

Role of
Government

We examine how government intervention

impacts on different groups of young people
in supporting making better transitions.

Principles

Principles and areas

emerging from the
evidence for possible
future intervention.

Adolescence is not strictly defined by chronological age,

but we can identify a number of stages and changes
Stages
Pre-adolescence
Age 9 to 13

Middle
adolescence
Age 14 to 16

Late adolescence
Age 17 to 19

Begins with the onset of

puberty and is marked by
the most rapid growth spurt.

The time when the need for

independence becomes
increasingly apparent.

The time during which

teenagers start to
disengage with their
families and begin to shift
to economic and emotional
independence.

Introduction

Changes
Physical

Development in this stage is unrivalled by any other point

in development except infancy. Puberty triggers a surge
of growth and sex hormones.

Brain
Development

The brain re-organises: some areas get less efficient,

such as working memory, while others, such as
recognising emotion, get stronger.

Intellectual

Adolescence is a distinct phase in the development of

thinking skills. Thinking changes from concrete thinking
(e.g. yes and no) to formal operations including
abstraction and forming hypotheses.

Psycho-social

Adolescence is the stage when young people start developing

personal identity; trying on different roles to work out who they
are and how they fit within society. This can involve tensions
within families as young people seek independence and a
separate identity.

Asmussen et al. (2007) Supporting parents of teenagers

Blakemore S-J & Choudhury, S (2006) Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry

The role of Government in young peoples lives has to balance

the needs of the individual, society and the economy

Introduction

There is no single route through adolescence, but it does needs correct

pace in order to benefit society and the individual.
Too fast: young adults are less likely to have the skills needed to be self-sufficient
sustainably.
Too slow: the financial burden on family and society may become excessive.

The principle of self-responsibility is strong and Government has a critical

role in promoting opportunity and information so that everyone can to do best
for themselves.
However, important inequalities amongst young people exist, and
Government has an important role in targeting support to those with either
fewer opportunities or inability to fully exploit them.
Some activities of young people impact adversely on other members of
society, such as anti-social behaviour. It is right for government to intervene
to stop it; exactly as happens with other people.
6

Contents

Introduction
Context Trends in Youth Development
Drivers in Successful Youth Transitions
Where Policy Intervenes
Principles from the Evidence

We briefly look at trends in some of the main changes that have occurred in
the lives of young people and how they view life today.

We do so under these headings:

Demographic
Learning
Economic
Social
Technological

.Finally, we characterise the voice of young people

8

The demographic landscape for adolescents is changing

There are 3.3 million 15-19 year olds in

England.

Trends in Youth
Development
Demographic

Population projections (England)

From a recent high point, this number is

currently falling and will continue to do
so over the next 10 years, before
bouncing back.
The proportion of 15-19 year olds in the
population will fall over the next decade
from 1 in 16 to 1 in 19 - the lowest ever
share.
Minority ethnic groups are 14% of 15-19
year olds, compared with only 5% of over
50s.

Sources: ONS (2009) Population estimates by ethnic group, mid-2007 (experimental).

GAD (2009) Population Projections 2008 estimates

More young people than ever are attaining in learning

Attainment at age 16 has risen steeply yearon-year for over the last 20 years since the
introduction of GCSEs
Trends in GCSE/O-level attainment 1963-2009

Trends in Youth
Development
Learning

and by age 19 a further fifth of young

people gain Level 2 and half gain Level 3
Attainment at 19 2004-08

GCSEs
introduced

Source: GCSE and Equivalent Results in England, 2008/09 and DCSF time series

DCSF Level 2 and 3 Attainment by Young People in England Measured Using Matched
Administrative Data: Attainment by Age 19 in 2008

10

however, despite progress over the last decade, social gradients

persist in attainment

Trends in Youth
Development
Learning

1 in 5 young people in the poorest households gain 5 or more A*-C GCSEs (inc.
English & Maths) compared to three quarters of those from the richest homes - a
gap of over 50% pts.
GCSE threshold attainment by parental income quintile

GCSE average point scores by parental income quintile

Source: Chowdry et al. (2009), Drivers and Barriers to Educational Success - Evidence from the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. DCSF-RR102

11

and in post-16 participation in learning.

The proportion of 16 year olds participating in

education and training is at the highest ever rate,
though gaps between social groups persist

Participation rate in FT Education at 16 by

socio-grouping

Trends in Youth
Development
Learning

although taking a longer view, the relationship

between family income and staying on has
decreased substantially over the years.
Relationship between family income and
staying on in education post 16 across
cohorts
Clearly as we move to full
participation with RPA, socioeconomic differences in
participation will disappear

SEG

NS-SEC

Sources: Participation in Education, Training and Employment by 16-18 Year Olds in England SFR 12/2009; YCS cohorts 3 to 13
Gregg and Macmillan (2009) Family Income and Education in the Next Generation: Exploring the income gradients in education for the current cohorts of youth. CMPO Working Paper 09/223

12

Aggregate snap-shot statistics mask extensive diversity in the

pathways young people follow post-GCSE.

Trends in Youth
Development
Learning

3 out of 5 young people continue in full-time education continuously to 18 or beyond.

The remaining 41% follow many routes post-16, often cycling between periods in learning, work
(with or without training), unemployment and inactivity.
Education to job without training 5% of
young people who stay in full time education in
the first year only to leave to a job without
training.

Job with training 8% of young people

spend most of their time in jobs with training,
a small number with short periods of other
activity.
Education to work with training 6% of
young people who study in full-time education
at 16, then move into a job with training,
however some with a short period NEET.

Here the LSYPE & YCS have been used to categorise the routes
taken by young people in the two years following compulsory
education. This pie chart represents eight stereotypical pathways
based on individual monthly activity data.

Source: DCSF using LSYPE and YCS

Return to education 5% of young people

who enrol in full time education at 17, having
spent spells in a variety of activities at age 16.

Increasing job without training 8% of young

people spend most of their time in jobs without
training, with some spending the first year NEET
or other activities.

Becoming NEET 5% of young people who

complete or drop out of a course of full-rime
education spend most of the remainder of their
period NEET. Some start jobs only to leave them
quickly.
Mainly NEET 5% of young people cycle
between NEET and other activities (mainly work
with out training). Some young people spend the
full two years NEET.

Continuous education - 59% of young people remain in

full-time education for two full years after compulsory
education.

13

Trends in Youth
Development

Greater participation in learning has extensively altered the

relationship young people have with the labour market

Economic

The transition out of education and into full time

work has become more problematic for young
people, who have been hit particularly hard
recently by the recession.

Over 300,000 16 & 17 year olds in full-time

education are also in part-time employment,
though they are becoming a diminishing minority.

ILO unemployment by age

Employment rate of 16-17 year olds in

FT Education

Recession

Source: ONS Labour Market Statistics

Recession

14

and this has happened at the same time as changes to

independent living. More educated young people are staying at
home longer
The expansion of higher education has seen
more young people leave home at age 18 - but
adults in their 20s are now more likely to live with
their parents than they were 20 years ago
Percentage of young adults living with their
parent (s) by age and gender

Berrington et al. (2009) in Population Trends 138, ONS

Trends in Youth
Development
Social

The trend is most marked for those with higher

qualifications suggesting more returners home
after university.
Percentage of males and females aged 22-24
living with parents) in 1988 and 2008
according to highest educational
qualification

15

Trends in Youth
Development

and starting families later.

Social

Average age of mother at first birth, 1938-2007

Parents are getting older, as

they start families later in
life

although a significant minority

become pregnant as teenagers.
By age 17/18, 3% of young
people have children of their own
(LSYPE Sweep 5 / YCS Sweep 2)

Source: ONS Social Trends 2009; World Development Indicators 2008.

Rate per 1000

Adolescent fertility rate: births per 1 000

women aged 15-19, 2005

16

Digital age has profoundly changed what young people do, how
they see themselves and communicate with one another...

90%

12-15 year olds use a mobile phone (2007).

55%

12-15 year olds who used the internet at home had

created a page or profile on a social networking site
(2007).

75%

said that they couldn't live without the internet.

45%

said that they felt happiest when online.

32%

agreed with the statement: 'I can access all the

information I need online, there is no need to speak
to a real person about my problems'.

82%

said they had used the internet to look for advice

and information for themselves and 60% had for
other people.

37%

said that they would use the internet to give advice

to others on sensitive issues.

Trends in Youth
Development
Technological

The growth of Twitter in recent year exemplifies

the explosion of social networking.

Media Literacy Audit, Ofcom (2009); Youthnets Life Support: Young peoples needs in a digital age report.
Twitter.com

17

...but despite this technological change, what 14-19 year olds say
most worries them feels remarkably familiar.

Trends in Youth
Development
Voice of Young People

In the past 6 months, what have been the 3 most challenging

issues you have come across in your life?

Education
Net 74%
Careers
Net 34%
Relationships
Net 44%
Health
Net 20%
Driving lessons/learning to drive,
growing up, travel

Source: DCSF Digital Comms presentation, quant online survey of 1000 14-19s

Top 15 responses shown

18

Young people today embody many of the values of modern Britain

Young people are liberal and racially tolerant. They

are proud to be British and perceive Britain as
providing opportunity for self-improvement

It is easier for people like me to get on and improve

things for themselves than it was for my parents

78%

Britain today is a place where people are usually

treated fairly no matter what background they come
from

55%

These days newspapers usually make young people

out to be much worse than they actually are

78%

There is too little respect for religion and religious

values in Britain today

56%

Britain is a free country where everyones rights are

respected no matter what their background

Source: LSYPE wave 5; YCS Cohort 13, Sweep 2

60%

On voting 51% likely to vote in general

election.
Voting

Agree

Voice of Young People

Young people are perhaps surprisingly

politically engaged

Only 11% said they definitely wouldnt

vote
but this rose to over one quarter for
those with the lowest qualifications.

Community
Cohesion

Statement

Trends in Youth
Development

74% of young people agreed that people

from different racial, ethnic and religious
backgrounds get on well together in their
local community
80% Pakistani YP say that being British
is important to them.

19

Contents

Introduction
Context Trends in Youth Development
Drivers in Successful Youth Transitions
Where Policy Intervenes
Principles from the Evidence

20

There is no one single, linear, successful youth transition to

adulthood. Transitions occur at different ages and at different rates.
A conceptual model

Childhood

14

Drivers in successful
Youth Transitions

Employers Demands

16

19

Social and
emotional skills

Social and
emotional skills

Social and
emotional skills

Cognitive Skills

Cognitive Skills

Cognitive Skills

Adulthood
Economic and wider
Outcomes

Young Person's
Attitudes and Behaviours

Parental Attitudes

Family Resources

Friends and Peers

Community

School
21

What do we mean by cognitive and social & emotional skills?

Cognitive skills are the basic mental abilities we

use to think, study, and learn

Social and Emotional skills cover a much

wider range. They are sometimes referred to as
soft skills or life skills.

They include a wide variety of mental

processes used to:

Examples of skills and characteristics that

commonly fall under this heading:

Analyse sounds and images;

Recall information from memory;
Make associations between different pieces
of information; and
Maintain concentration on particular tasks.

Optimism
Confidence / self confidence
Perseverance and persistence
Planning and organising
Dependability
Self-esteem
Emotional intelligence
Self management
Team work
Locus of control
Managing relationships
Managing stress
Self-efficacy

They can be individually identified and

measured.
Cognitive skill strength and efficiency
correlates directly with students' ease of
learning.

22

Cognitive skills are ultimately the single most important driver of

economic outcomes
In general, higher qualifications carry higher returns and academic
qualifications earn more than their vocational counterparts
Wage* returns to academic and vocational qualifications

Economic
Outcomes

and qualifications are associated with higher

employment rates.
Employment rate by highest qualification level

Vocational degrees
include professional
qualifications such as
accountancy, law, etc.

Academic

Vocational

Source: Jenkins et al (2007): The Returns to Qualifications in England, Updating the

Evidence Base on Level 2 and Level 3 Vocational Qualifications. CEE Discussion
Paper no. 89.

*Wage returns are interpreted as the average percentage increase in wages or the chance of being employed as result of holding a particular qualification
compared to other people that do not hold that qualification. They are a more sophisticated way to analyse the economic value of skills as they take account of
other factors that also might affect wages or employment chances. Examples of these include, gender, age, ethnicity, hours worked and region.

23

and the labour market seems to be absorbing the increase in

supply of qualifications, with average returns remaining stable
Returns for academic qualifications have remained fairly
stable over time
Average wage returns 1997-2006

Source: Jenkins et al (2007): The Returns to Qualifications in England, Updating the Evidence
Base on Level 2 and Level 3 Vocational Qualifications. CEE Discussion Paper no. 89.

Economic
Outcomes

the same applies for vocational qualifications

Average wage returns 1997-2006

24

and demand for cognitive and social and emotional skills is likely
to continue.

The level of skill required to do a job is

generally rising
Changes in qualifications required 1997-2006, million jobs

Sources: Felstead et al (2006) Skills at work; IER estimates base on Census and LFS data

Employers demands

Economic
Outcomes

and the type of skills demanded are also

changing, from manual skills, to abilities in
communication and self-management.
Projected change in skill requirements to 2010

25

Employers have clear demands on young entrants to the labour

force including social and emotional skills.

In preparation for the world of work, satisfaction of

employers towards young people remains reasonably
good, and is improving
Employers views on the preparedness of
young people for work

National Employers Skills Survey 2009; National Employers Skills Survey

2007. Results from 79,000 employers

Employers demands

Economic
Outcomes

although it is with personal attributes that greatest

shortcomings are identified.
Employers views on the shortcomings of
young peoples preparedness for work

Personal attributes are defined in NESS as: Lack of motivation/enthusiasm/commitment; work ethic/poor attitude to work; time keeping skills/punctuality;
poor attitude (inc. manners/respect); not prepared to work long hours; discipline; social/people skills; common sense; initiative; confidence; responsibility;
personal appearance/presentation.

26

Social and emotional skills are also important in determining

outcomes, including cognitive skills

There is significant interdependence between cognitive and

social /self-regulation skills with achievement in maths

Recent research has shown that attentiveness and locus of

control are almost as important as cognitive skills for
educational attainment and economic outcomes
The relative importance of cognitive and social and
emotional at age 10 on likelihood of attaining minimum
educational qualifications at age 26 1

Relative Impact of Different Skills on Numeracy

Achievement1

Cognitive

Estimated coefficient

Marginal effect

Each marker refers to an

individual study. The black
markers are studies with
statistically significant results

Cognitive skills

social and emotional skills

social and emotional

1) Feinstein (2000), The relative importance of academic, psychological and behavioural attributes developed in
1) Duncan et al, 'School Readiness and Later Achievement.', Developmental Psychology 43:6. Filled triangles indicate statistically
childhood. 2) Carneiro et al, (2007), The Impact of Early Cognitive and social and emotional Skills on Later
significant coefficients (2008). Results based on results from 6 surveys across different countries.
Outcomes;

27

Young peoples attitudes and behaviours are key and they are
shaped by a variety of influences
A conceptual model

Childhood

14

Drivers in successful
Youth Transitions

Employers Demands

16

19

Social and
emotional skills

Social and
emotional skills

Social and
emotional skills

Cognitive Skills

Cognitive Skills

Cognitive Skills

Adulthood
Economic and wider
Outcomes

Young Person's
Attitudes and Behaviours

Parental Attitudes

Family Resources

Friends and Peers

Community

School
28

There are strong associations

between childrens beliefs regarding
their own ability and their academic
attainment.
but losing self-belief is also
associated with increased likelihood
in engagement in risky behaviours.

Effect size (% of standard deviation) for KS4;

Marginal percentage point effect for other outcomes

Individual child attitudes are critical. Levels of self-belief are

related to attainment, whereas changes are more closely
associated with engagement in risky behaviours

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

Impact of child self-belief on various

outcomes at age 16

There are also strong associations

between whether a child believes
they have control over their own
economic destiny (locus of control)
and their academic attainment
Source: Chowdry et al. (2009), Drivers and Barriers to Educational Success - Evidence from the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. DCSF-RR102
*Goodman and Gregg ed.s (forthcoming) Childrens educational outcomes: the role of attitudes and behaviours, from early childhood to late adolescence.

29

Engaging in multiple risky behaviours is also associated with low

educational attainment

Source: LSYPE

Internalising
Behaviour
Exteranalising
behaviour

However, multiple
engagement in risky
behaviours is associated with
up to a 20% reduction in
GCSE points. A reduction in
8-12 entire GCSE grades.

Impact of engagement in multiple risky

behaviours on GCSE attainment
No. of Behaviours at age 14

Engaging in only one or two

risky behaviours is
associated with a small and
statistically insignificant
reduction in attainment (< 1
GCSE grade = 6 GCSE
points)

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

-0.8

-4.5
-50.3

3
1

-5.5

-3.1

-3.3

-72.1
-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

Contribution to GCSE Point Score (age 16)

Note: 6 points represent 1 grade in 1 subject, although 16 points are given for the lowest pass (grade G)

30

and undertaking self-developmental activity is associated with

better educational attainment and fewer risky behaviours.
Young people engaging in self-development activities,
including sport, on average achieved 10%-20% higher GCSE
point scores.

Impact of engagement in multiple selfdevelopment behaviours on GCSE

attainment

Source: LSYPE

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

.Self-development activities are correlated with fewer risky

behaviours, whereas there is a positive correlation with
socialising activities

Impact of socialising activities and self development

activities on engagement in risky behaviours

Note: 6 points represent 1 grade in 1 subject, although 16 points are given for the lowest pass (grade G)

31

Parental attitudes and behaviours, along with family processes,

matter a great deal for older children.

Good parenting matters for older children too.

Most families function as supportive unit

Teenagers rely on their parents for

psychological and emotional support.

Sharing problems is strongly associated with

post-16 transitions.

Parental Attitudes

Young people, who get on badly with their parents

are associated with a lower likelihood of being in
FT education

e.g. 74% eat together most nights (age 13/14)

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

Young people who never talk to mum about

things that matter are twice as likely to
become NEET as those who talk at least once
a week (15% versus 8%)
and 15% less likely to be in full-time
education.

Overwhelming evidence from LSYPE that

these sort of behaviours matter for attainment
through KS4, over and above earlier age
effects.
Source: LSYPE

32

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

Parents act as an important source of support and guidance.

Happy adolescents feel most

able to talk to their parents
about things that matter
but only 1 in 5 unhappy or
depressed adolescents felt
able to talk to their parents.

Parental Attitudes

People that young people are likely to

talk to about things that matter to them,
by self-reported well-being
Who are you most likely to tell your
problems to?
disaggregated by how young person feels.

Having someone to talk to

matters. 26% feeling much
more unhappy than usual had
no-one to talk to.

Source: LSYPE, wave 4

33

Parental expectations to stay on in learning post age 16 have

become a social norm

Parental expectations have risen across all social

class background, with gaps narrowing in latest
born cohort
1

Direct influence of parental education on

parental expectations for education has
reduced for the later born cohorts.

percentage

Parental Attitudes

Although high social class parents have

the highest learning aspirations for their
children, the picture is reversed once
adjusted for prior attainment.

0
P

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

The role of academic attainment in

influencing expectations among teenagers
and parents has reduced for later born
cohort. Therefore, it suggests that social
change has made further education a
norm.

Sources: Schoon and Polek (2009) High Hopes in a Changing World: Social disadvantage and educational expectations in three age cohorts

34

but there are socioeconomic differences in parents assessment of

the likelihood of this happening

Most parents would like their young person to

continue in education beyond the age of 16...

Parental Attitudes

but the extent to which parents think it is likely

their young person will enter HE varies
significantly by income
Proportion of parents who thought it was likely their
child would enter Higher Education

proportion

% of parents who said education when asked what

they would like YP to do when they leave school?

percentage

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

4
V

N
0

Source: LSYPE

35

Socio-economic differences in financial and other resources in

families impacts on access to services that aid attainment
Although there are strong differences in educational
outcomes by family income, the causal impact of
income is only modest, albeit significant

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

Family Resources

Indicative ways in which differential access to

resources affects attainment is shown through the
gradients in use of private tuition and in access to
computer or internet access.
Access to material resources by socioeconomic position

UK evidence suggest that a onethird reduction in family income

increases the propensity to achieve
no A-C GCSEs by between 1 and 3
percentage points

Differential access to family resources also impacts on affordability of participation in learning

post-16 and may contribute to the significant drop-off in aspiration toward HE for young
people and their parents from lower social-class families between the ages of 14 and 16.
Gregg and Blanden, 2004 Family Income and Educational Attainment: A Review of Approaches
and Evidence for Britain,

Chowdry et al. (2009), Drivers and Barriers to Educational Success - Evidence from the
Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. DCSF-RR102

36

As young people get older they spend more time with their peers,
particularly those from more socially disadvantaged groups.
During adolescence, young people want to
spend more time with peers.

Friends and Peers

Id rather spend time with friends than family by age

percentage

Parents help to moderate young peoples peer

and community contexts. For example,
parental values and practices indirectly
determine their teenagers choice of peer
group or crowd.

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

The importance of the peer group appears to

peak at age 15 and is particularly influential
for boys. Young people in the UK, in particular
boys, spend more time with their peers than
almost all other OECD countries.

percentage

Interaction with friends, by lone parent/working status

with young people from lower SEGs spending

more time with peers than those from higher SEGs 3

Young people in lone parent families working

more than 16 hours per week are most likely
to frequently spend time at friends houses
and have their friends over to theirs.
Sources: Young People in Britain: The attitudes and Experiences of 12 to 19 Year Olds, NatCen (2004); Currie at al, 2004;
DWP, 2005 (based on 11-15 year olds); Asmussen et al. (2007)

Number of days had

friends round last week

Number of days visited

friends at home last week

37

The majority of young people have good peer relations,

helping them to develop themselves throughout adolescence

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

Friends and Peers

Good peer relations are integral to the development of

internal (personal) skills.
Making and keeping friends requires an assortment of
internal skills including functional skills such as:
problem solving;
aspects of self-regulation including perspective
taking ability, affect recognition;
self-belief; and
social & behavioural skills such as communications
skills, understanding others and so on.

Young people are more likely to be satisfied by

their friendship networks1
Do you have a satisfactory friendship network?

As these competencies develop friendships change and

can become more stable and reciprocal. 5
Strong positive peer friendships cushion young people
from the stresses associated with experiences like
bullying or even the divorce of parents, as friends provide
important help and advice about how to manage
problems. 3

Age Range (Years)

They can also produce feelings of personal well-being

and prevent loneliness. 3
Sources: Office of National Statistics 2005; Sullivan 1953; Hodges et al 1999; Rubin et al 1998 ; Epstein 1986; SavinWilliams & Berndt (1990); Hartup (1993); Armsden & Greenberg (1987); Buhrmester and Yin (1997)

38

however, a significant minority struggle to form or maintain peer

relationships.
Although most young people have friends, up to
18% of todays young people have no best friend
who they can really trust1

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

Friends and Peers

and young people from lower socio-economic

backgrounds are marginally more likely to be
bullied
Young people bullied in the past 3
years (years 9, 10 or 11)

percentage

percentage

Young people who said they had

a friend they could really trust

If a young persons peer influences are primarily negative,

the likelihood of adjustment difficulties later on are
increased. For example, a lack of friendships at an early
age is linked to later depression.
Good Childhood Enquiry (2005); Gifford-Smith et al 2002; LSYPE

39

..and not having good friendship and peer relationships is

associated with poorer outcomes.

Any form of being bullied is

associated with reduced
attainment.

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

Friends and Peers

Association between different types of

bullying and impact on GCSE score

Overall, being bullied in KS4

is correlated with a
reduction in attainment of 2
GCSE grades.
Those bullied are less likely to be in
full-time education and more likely to
become NEET
Happiness and well-being is much
lower for those experiencing bullying.

Source: LSYPE wave 4

40

Neighbourhood characteristics in and of themselves

appear to have little influence on outcomes, except NEET

Impact of multiple deprivation on chances of

being NEET (relative to 20% most deprived
neighbourhoods)

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

Community

Deprived individuals living in deprived

areas are more likely to be NEET at age
17 than deprived individuals living in nondeprived areas.

Marginal effect (% point)

However same study finds no evidence

that neighbourhood deprivation (after
controlling for other factors) consistently
affects Key Stage 4 scores or any
behavioural outcomes at age 16
though the literature is more mixed
about the impact of neighbourhoods on
behavioural outcomes.

Source: Chowdry et al. (2009), Drivers and Barriers to Educational Success Evidence from the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. DCSF-RR102

41
41

Relatively little of the difference in pupils attainment can be

explained by differences across schools
About 8% of the variation between pupils in
Key Stage 4 is attributable to school
differences.
Percentage of between-school
variation in Key Stage 2 and 4

percentage

taking into account prior attainment and other pupil

characteristics

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

School

Voluntary-Aided schools have the best

GCSE results, but they also have a higher
quality intake
Key Stage 2 and 4 attainment by
school type

Higher between-school variation

in primary reflects the fact that
the primaries have a large
number of institutions, each with
a small number of teachers and
pupils, and secondary which has
a smaller number of institutions,
each with a large number of
teachers and pupils.

DCSF (2009) DCSF (2008) The Composition of Schools in England

42
42

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

but good teachers do seem to matter.

Being taught by a high-quality (75th

percentile) rather than low-quality (25th
percentile) teacher adds 0.425 of a GCSE
grade per subject.

School

Impact of teacher quality on GCSE

attainment

Rivkin et al. (2005) find the gap in GCSE

points between a poor and non-poor student
is 6.08 GCSE points
so if a poor student had good teachers for
all 8 subjects and the non-poor student had
poor (25th percentile teachers) for all 8, this
would make up 3.4 points (56%) of the
difference.

Source: Burgess et al (2009) Do teachers matter? Measuring the variation in teacher effectiveness in England

43

The most damaging behaviour of all to a young persons prospects

is disengagement from school, manifested in absence

Persistent absence from school is costly and

damaging to educational outcomes
GCSE attainment of persistent absentees

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

School

and young people who play truant are more likely to

be NEET for longer durations
Association between NEET duration and truancy in
year 11

There is a penalty of 3 GCSE points

for a 1% increase in absence over
the Key Stage
6 points = 1 grade in 1 GCSE subject
Therefore 8% increase in absence
over the key stage is equivalent to
the FSM penalty (25 points)

Source: DCSF internal analysis, LSYPE

44

with disengagement clearly associated with earlier poor attitudes

towards school.

Children that enjoy school perform

better at KS4, even when accounting
for prior attainment and are
significantly less likely to engage in
risky and anti-social behaviour

Young Persons Attitudes

and Behaviours

School

Impact of school enjoyment on outcomes

Children who are bullied perform

worse than children who are not
bullied and are more likely to
experience behavioural problems
but are no more likely to truant

Solid filled bars are significant at p<0.01, stippled bars at p<0.05

and unfilled bars n/s.
Source: Chowdry et al. (2009), Drivers and Barriers to Educational Success - Evidence from
the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. DCSF-RR102

45

Contents

Introduction
Context Trends in Youth Development
Drivers in Successful Youth Transitions
Where Policy Intervenes
Principles from the Evidence

46

This section looks at how current policy intervention acts on each of those
drivers to produce better and more equal outcomes.

14

Childhood
Prior
Attainment

Social and
emotional skills
Cognitive Skills

16

19

Social and
emotional skills

Social and
emotional skills

Cognitive Skills

Cognitive Skills

Adulthood
Economic
Outcomes

Young Person's
Attitudes and Behaviours

Policy
interventions

Parental Attitudes

Family Resources

Friends and Peers

Community

School

47

Most of the social gradients in adolescent development are

associated with gaps generated in earlier childhood
High performing five year-olds are much more likely to
attain higher qualifications at 26

Percentage of 26 year olds attaining educational and

vocational qualifications by quartile position in early
development scores at age 5

Childhood
Prior
Attainment

Evidence from the 1970 birth cohort shows social class

gaps open early, and continue to widen

High SES, High Ability

High SES, Low Ability
Low SES, High Ability

percentage

Low SES, Low Ability

and although there is evidence that the link between parental

income and outcomes is weakening slightly*, data from children
born in 2000 suggest the same phenomenon is still occurring

Feinstein, L (1999) The relative economic importance of academic, psychological and behavioural attributes developed in childhood Source: Feinstein (2003). Inequality in the Early Cognitive Development of British Children in the 1970
Cohort, Economica, p73-97. Blanden and Machin (2007) Recent Changes in Intergenerational Mobility *Gregg and Macmillan (2009) Family Income and Education in the Next Generation: Exploring the income gradients in education for the
current cohorts of youth. CMPO Working Paper 09/223

48

but there is plenty of scope for progress in adolescence.

What young people and their parents do, how they think and how
they act has an important bearing on their life trajectory.
Differences in prior attainment explain about 60
per cent of the gap in test scores between young
people from rich and poor families.

Childhood
Prior
Attainment

Explaining the gap between the poorest and

the richest at age 16: decomposition
analysis

Family background factors (including parental

education) account for only a relatively small
fraction of the attainment gap between young
people from rich and poor families.
This suggests that the effect of parental
education and family background on
attainment at age 16 works largely
through its influence on attainment
by age 11.
Differences in parental and young peoples
attitudes and behaviours captured at ages 14
and 16 together explain roughly one quarter of
the gap in GCSE results between young people
from rich and poor families

Goodman and Gregg [eds] (2010) Childrens educational outcomes: the role of attitudes and behaviours,
from early childhood to late adolescence.

49

Where Policy
Intervenes

Specific interventions tackle the increasing social gradient that

occurs post-14 through each of the drivers identified.

14

Childhood
Prior
Attainment

Social and
emotional skills
Cognitive Skills

16

19

Social and
emotional skills

Social and
emotional skills

Cognitive Skills

Cognitive Skills

Adulthood
Economic
Outcomes

Young Person's
Attitudes and Behaviours

Parental Attitudes

Family Resources

Friends and Peers

Community

School

Preventing
Disengagement

Technological
Access

Tackling Risky
Behaviours

Helping post-16
transitions

Developing social
and emotional
attributes

50

Where Policy
Intervenes

Specific interventions tackle the increasing social gradient that

occurs post-14 through each of the drivers identified.

14

Childhood
Prior
Attainment

Social and
emotional skills
Cognitive Skills

16

19

Social and
emotional skills

Social and
emotional skills

Cognitive Skills

Cognitive Skills

Adulthood
Economic
Outcomes

Young Person's
Attitudes and Behaviours

Parental Attitudes

Family Resources

Friends and Peers

Community

School

Preventing
Disengagement

51

Much of the additional social gradient in outcomes generated

during adolescence is associated with falling aspiration and
disengagement.
There is no social gradient for young people who have
rising aspirations, but there is a strong social gradient
for those with falling aspirations

and children with greater educational aspiration

tend to perform better in school, and have fewer
behavioural issues.
Impact of higher education
aspirations on outcomes

Effect size (% of standard deviation) for KS4;

Marginal percentage point effect for other outcomes

Percentage of young people changing their

HE aspirations between 14 and 16

percentage

Where Policy
Intervenes

Many young people first their gain Level 2 qualification between ages 16 and
19. This underlines that young people can achieve and that early disengaging
young people are failing to reach their potential.
Ross, A. (2009) Disengagement from education among 14-16 year olds. DCSF-RR178 .
Chowdry, H. et al. (2009), Drivers and Barriers to Educational Success - Evidence from the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. DCSF-RR102

52

This disengagement is manifested through underachievement

through Key Stage 4

Percentage of young people in education and training:

Under achievers vs. consistent achievers

Where Policy
Intervenes

Young people whose

attainment was average at KS3
but dropped in KS4 were more
likely to be NEET or in JWT at
16-17 than their counterparts
who were low achievers at
KS3. This suggests that a lack
of engagement (driven by a
range of factors) is a critical
issue for post-16 participation
and can be more important
than attainment level alone.
Disengagement can be
sudden, triggered by an event
or crisis, or a more gradual
process.

Callanan, M. Kinsella, R. Graham, J. Turczuk, O. and Finch, S. (2009) Pupils with Declining Attainment at Key
Stages 3 and 4: Profiles and impacts of underachievement and disengagement. DCSF Research Report 086

53

and without intervention, there is the risk of downward spirals

Suzanne: Complete disengagement

In Years 7 and 8 she had done well at school.
As she got older she grew to dislike school.
She had difficult relationships with some of
her teachers and sometimes she couldnt
answer questions in class and this made her
feel stupid. She had a good group of friends,
but in Year 9, all her classes were split. Not
being with her friends made her not want to
go to class and it was at this point she began
to truant. At the same time, outside of school,
her parents split up.

Where Policy
Intervenes

Pathway to Suzannes complete disengagement

At first she only truanted a few days here and

then she was truanting for whole weeks at a
time. It was only half-way through Year 11
that the school contacted her dad about her
attendance. The school let her drop some
lessons and offered her extra classes. She
did not go because the lessons were after
school and she saw this as her time. When it
finally came to her exams, she did not go to
any of them because she felt she had missed
too much.

Source: NatCen (2009) Declining attainment between KS3 and KS4:Profiles,

experiences and impacts of underachievement and disengagement

54

The evidence points to a range of factors to prevent

disengagement or re-engage young people

Evidence suggests that on-going and

early intervention prior to Year 9 is
crucial, and that re-engagement
activity has more limited success

Key success factors are:

Schools working with
parents

Positive relationships
with teachers

Study support

Engaging curriculum

Supervision of
homework

Preventing bullying
Extra-curricula
activities

Sources: NatCen (2009) Declining attainment between KS3 and KS4:Profiles,

experiences and impacts of underachievement and disengagement

Where Policy
Intervenes

A case study with early intervention

At KS3 Claire had been a high achiever. She
was initially predicted ten A-C grade GCSEs.
However, at KS4 she did not like a lot of the
subjects on offer preferring more practical
subjects. She would also have liked to have
done business studies but this was not available.
From Year 9 onwards she fell in with a new
group of friends who did not go to her school and
because they were truanting, she truanted so
that she could be with them. As a result, she got
further and further behind with her school work
and lost touch with the friends she had at school
and this in turn made it more difficult for her to go
back. Despite this, support from her family and
the help of an Educational Welfare Officer
helped her re-engage with school in Year 11
where she also got help from a school mentor to
catch-up with what she had missed. With this
help she achieved 5 GCSE passes, 4 of them at
A-C. Claire now 18, is working full-time.

Ross, A. (2009) Disengagement from education among 14-16 year olds. DCSF-RR178 .

55

Where Policy
Intervenes

Specific interventions tackle the increasing social gradient that

occurs post-14 through each of the drivers identified.

14

Childhood
Prior
Attainment

Social and
emotional skills
Cognitive Skills

16

19

Social and
emotional skills

Social and
emotional skills

Cognitive Skills

Cognitive Skills

Adulthood
Economic
Outcomes

Young Person's
Attitudes and Behaviours

Parental Attitudes

Family Resources

Friends and Peers

Community

School

Technological
Access

56

While material differences between families are inevitable,

effective policy can mitigate impact this has on adolescent
outcomes.

percentage

Access to material resources by socioeconomic position

Where Policy
Intervenes

Much of the SES gap for the LSYPE

cohort is associated with differential
access to computers and the internet
in the home. Something recent policy
has sought to address through the home
access programme.
Differences in 1 to 1 tuition too. Mitigated
by personal additional support to
those at risk of under-achievement
Although evidence on whether financial
constraint prevents post-16 participation
in learning is mixed, the introduction of
EMA enabled participation to increase
from less advantaged families to rise
relatively much faster.

Chowdry, H. et al. (2009), Drivers and Barriers to Educational Success - Evidence from the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. DCSF-RR102

57

Where Policy
Intervenes

Specific interventions tackle the increasing social gradient that

occurs post-14 through each of the drivers identified.

14

Childhood
Prior
Attainment

Social and
emotional skills
Cognitive Skills

16

19

Social and
emotional skills

Social and
emotional skills

Cognitive Skills

Cognitive Skills

Adulthood
Economic
Outcomes

Young Person's
Attitudes and Behaviours

Parental Attitudes

Family Resources

Friends and Peers

Community

School

Tackling Risky
Behaviours

58

Young people at risk of harm who are in contact with support

services are under-achieving the most
17% of 15 year olds had been in contact with the police,
educational welfare or social services, with young
people engaging in the most risky behaviours are most
likely to be in contact with institutions and agencies.
Contact with different services by
number of risky behaviours

Where Policy
Intervenes

These young people are those who experience loss of

educational attainment, particularly so if social services
or other institutions beyond the school are involved
(though causality could run in either direction)
Impact on attainment from risky
behaviours and contact with services

Those saying they engaged in

some risky behaviours but not
in extra contact with
institutions do not seem to
suffer an educational penalty.

Source: LSYPE, internal analysis.

SS=Social Services; EW=Educational Welfare.

59

Remedial action does not seem as effective as prevention, since

despite institutional support those engaged in multiple risky
behaviours still suffer attainment penalties.

Where Policy
Intervenes

Prevention

What matters most around risky behaviours is not engaging in them from outset.
The most important anchor points to effective policy intervention are: young persons attitude
to school; the relationships with family; and the influence of peers
Participation in self-development activities associated with reduced risky
behaviours socialising activities (just hanging out around town / going out with
friends) associated with increased risky behaviours).
So important to encourage desired activities e.g. youth facilities policies; positive
activities.

Remedy

Unstructured socialising activities associated with increased tendency to engage in

risky behaviours.
Difficult to reverse participation in risky behaviours, but positive activities may
prevent further activities being taken up.
Increasing/taking-up self-development activity may have some benefits, and is
associated with 2+ GCSE Grades progress.
Cebulla, A & Tomaszewski, W (2009) Risky Behaviour and Social Activities, DCSF Research Report 173.

60

Where Policy
Intervenes

Specific interventions tackle the increasing social gradient that

occurs post-14 through each of the drivers identified.

14

Childhood
Prior
Attainment

Social and
emotional skills
Cognitive Skills

16

19

Social and
emotional skills

Social and
emotional skills

Cognitive Skills

Cognitive Skills

Adulthood
Economic
Outcomes

Young Person's
Attitudes and Behaviours

Parental Attitudes

Family Resources

Friends and Peers

Community

School

Helping post-16
transitions

61

Young people need information, advice and guidance to help

them plan successful transitions to adulthood.
Many young people are able to access
advice about planning for the future from
parents and wider social networks.

Where Policy
Intervenes

Frequency of talking about plans for future study Year 9

But access to such resources is not

universal, so schools and other institutions
have a pivotal role.

percentage

Percentage of YP in activities at 16/17 still

in same activity at 17/18
Young people from lower SEC group are
over-represented in this routes.

Navigating transition points, such as from

school to post-16 learning notably has
potential to deflect young people away from
their intentions.
This is particularly true for those continuing
post-16 learning in routes outside of school.

Source: LSYPE Waves 1 and 5 and YCS Cohort 13, Sweep 2

62

Where Policy
Intervenes

Specific interventions tackle the increasing social gradient that

occurs post-14 through each of the drivers identified.

14

Childhood
Prior
Attainment

Social and
emotional skills
Cognitive Skills

16

19

Social and
emotional skills

Social and
emotional skills

Cognitive Skills

Cognitive Skills

Adulthood
Economic
Outcomes

Young Person's
Attitudes and Behaviours

Parental Attitudes

Family Resources

Friends and Peers

Community

School

Developing social
and emotional
attributes

63

What employers identify as weaknesses in personal attributes of

young people entering the labour market are of growing
importance and contribute to social gradients.

Where Policy
Intervenes

but we dont yet know how to intervene fully

effectively here.

Social and emotional attributes matter

Social & Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL)

Behaviour & Attendance Pilots, Personal, Learning and
Thinking Skills and PSHE are school-based
interventions which could help improve social and
emotional attributes.

A high proportion of job adverts explicitly seek these

attributes rather than specific functional skills e.g. only
26% of adverts explicitly or implicitly asked for
qualifications.
This demand, coupled with distributional differences in
these attributes is believed to play a major part in the
social gradients that persist in employment and earnings
of young adults.
They are the same attributes that earlier we showed
help mediate educational attainment.
Whereas trajectories of childhood cognitive development
become largely fixed at early age, evidence suggests
that ability in social and emotional behaviours remains
malleable later in life and is plastic all through
adolescence.

Evaluation results for SEAL in secondary schools is not

yet available and the evidence on impact of such
programmes in general remains relatively underdeveloped (were investing in evaluations to find out
more about what works).
Personal tutors increase pupils self-confidence
(Bullock & Wikeley (2008)).
Provision of study support can benefit pupils
motivation, behaviour and attitudes to learning
(MacBeath et al. (2001), MORI (2004)).
Engagement in self-development positive activities
can help to reduce participation in risky behaviours.

Jackson, M., Goldthorpe, J. H. and Mills, C. (2005), Education, Employers and Class
Mobility, Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 23: 1-30.

MacBeath, J. et al (2001) The Impact of Study Support DfES Research Report 273
MORI (2004) Study Support Survey. DfES Research Report 591

64

Contents

Introduction
Context Trends in Youth Development
Drivers in Successful Youth Transitions
Where Policy Intervenes
Principles from the Evidence

65

Principles from the

evidence

Five principles that emerge from the evidence

Be inclusive but
proportionate

Use the
strongest drivers
and levers

Engaging and
enriching

Relevant &
responsive

Use
opportunities
and incentives

66

Be inclusive but proportionate

Principles from the

evidence

All young people

have some needs

Some young people have greater needs than others. This is

particularly true for young people not able to benefit from the full
range of support that many take for granted from their parents and
wider families.

Prevention better
than cure

We know policies aimed at keeping young people on positive

trajectories are currently more effective than those rectifying
observed poor outcomes.

Precision of
targeting

Supporting those at risk of poor outcomes implies either a degree of

universal help or very good targeting is a major current challenge
that creates high deadweight and detracts from cost-effectiveness.

67

Use the strongest drivers and levers

Principles from the

evidence

Young people do not live in a vacuum.

There are many influences on the attitudes and behaviours
of young people, both positive and negative.
Parents remain the most important influence for young
people.

The importance of this

transmission
mechanism is only
likely to increase in
the future as young
people live for longer
at the parental home

Nurturing family relationships, not just for younger children,

remains an essential bond to protect adolescents well-being
and development.
In isolation, the impact of schools and other institutions is
much weaker. However, it will remain an important
influencing medium for young people estranged from their
families.
68

Be relevant and responsive.

Principles from the

evidence

Adolescents often dont lead ordered, neatly sequenced lives. This

creates challenges in providing support when they need help, rather than
when the system wants to provide help.
The states and activities of young people are often very dynamic for
instance the average duration of a period of being NEET is only 2 months.
This means support needs to be nimble if it is to tackle real need rather
than the ghost of problems past.
Dynamism creates a lot of activity, so policy needs to be discerning about
what problems justify intervention and which will self-rectify or be tackled in
the family.
One solution may be to better develop the decision-making capacity of
young people, so that they are better equipped to make informed choices for
themselves and know when to seek out support.

69

Engaging and enriching.

Principles from the

evidence

Adolescence should be enjoyable. Young people already worry a lot

about growing up, so its important not to add to that by being heavyhanded and impose lots of restrictions.
Policy ought to enrich their lives not take away liberties.
Giving young people a voice in asking what they want and would helps
them not only produces better policy but by respecting and empowering
them assists their development.
Young people most value experiential learning in deciding future
choices. That experiential learning also extends into other domains of
adolescent behaviour, some of which society finds less acceptable.
Policy needs a better framework for determining what the harms are to
both individuals and to society, both in the immediate and in the future, to
guide when and how to intervene.
70

Use opportunities and incentives

Principles from the

evidence

More carrot than stick. Simply

ordering young people not to do
something is ineffective and often
disrespectful.
There is scope to minimise
potential exposure to harmful
activities and behaviours by
imaginatively creating alternative,
more attractive opportunities for
young people to engage is positive
activities.
71

Next Steps

Principles from the

evidence

Many of this conclusions from this evidence update support the direction
of travel within recent major policy change for young people

Better schools -Your child, your schools, our future: building a

21st century schools system
Ensuring all people get the qualifications they need Raising
Expectations: staying in education and training post-16
IAG Strategy - Quality, Choice and Aspiration - A strategy for
young people's information, advice and guidance
NEET Delivery Plan - Raising the Participation Age: supporting
local areas to deliver
Social development Support for all: Families and
Relationships Green Paper.
Positive activities - Aiming High for Young People: 10 Year
Youth Strategy

It is also clear that much

remains to achieve our
social goals. Further
research stemming from this
slide pack will be
investigated further by
DCSFs new research
centres to help formulate
better, more efficient and
effective, evidence-informed
policy in the future.

72