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THERMODYNAMIC

S1
BASIC PRINCIPLES,
CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
Engr Armando C. Emata
November 13, 2014

TOPIC OBJECTIVES
Pressure Kinetic Theory
What are manometers?
How do we measure pressure?
What is a gage pressure?
What is atmospheric pressure?
What is absolute pressure?
Solve sample problems on pressure.
Assignment for next meeting

PRESSURE KINETIC THEORY


The pressure of a gas, if gravitation and other

body forces are negligible (as they generally are


for a gas), is caused by the pounding of a large
number of gas molecules on the surface.
The elementary kinetic theory presumes the
following:
1. the volume of the molecule itself is negligible
2. the molecules are so far apart they exert

negligible forces on one another, and


3. the molecules are rigid spheres that do have
elastic collisions with walls and with each other.

PRESSURE KINETIC THEORY


Consider Fig. 1/2 to elaborate this.
A
R

P
Ay

By
B

Fig 1/2 Consider this to be a cubical container, L on a side. This assumption


simplifies the physical concepts, but the result is just as general.

PRESSURE KINETIC THEORY


Elastic collision means, as shown in Fig. 1/2,

that when molecule A strikes the plane


surface of MN at an angle of incidence with
the normal PN, it rebounds symmetrically on
the other side of PN with an angle , and A
with
noAloss of kinetic energy or momentum; [ ]
= [ ].
The pressure is a consequence of the rate of
change of momentum of the molecules
striking the surface.

PRESSURE KINETIC THEORY


Simply put, pressure is defined as the normal

force per unit area.


We speak of the pressure at a point, but
actual pressure-measuring equipment (Fig. 1/3
shows one type) typically registers not dozens
of molecular strikes, but ordinarily millions, in
a small fraction of a second.
Exceptions to this generalization include
extreme vacuums and the outskirts of the
earths atmosphere.

PRESSURE KINETIC THEORY


At an altitude of 30 miles, the mean free path

(MFP) of a molecule is about 1 in., relatively


quite far; at 400 miles, the MFP is about 40
miles.
This decreasing density means fewer strikes,
and if the pressure probe is struck by a
molecule only now and then, there is no
25
meaning
to the pressure at a point.
A cubic inch of atmosphere (a handful)
contains some 4 x 10 molecules.

PRESSURE KINETIC THEORY

Fig. 1/3

Manometer for a Bourdon Pressure


Gage. This picture shows the
movement in one type of pressure
gage known as the single-tube gage.
The fluid enters the tube through the
threaded connection. As the pressure
increases, the tube with an elliptical
section tends to straighten, the end
that is nearest the linkage moving
toward the right. The linkage causes
the sector to rotate. The sector
engages a small pinion gear. The index
hand moves with the pinion gear. The
whole mechanism is, of course,
enclosed in a case, and a graduated
dial, from which the pressure is read, is

PRESSURE KINETIC THEORY


Barometers are used to measure atmospheric

pressure. It is convenient to have a standard


reference atmospheric pressure, which is 760
mm HG or even 29.92 in Hg at 32F, or 14.696
psia (14.7 typical), or 1 atm.
Pressure is one of the most useful
thermodynamic properties because it is easily
measured directly.
Pressure-measuring instruments read a
difference of pressures, called gage pressure;
in pounds per square inch, we shall use the
abbreviation psig, the g standing for gage.

PRESSURE MANOMETERS
Manometers give a reading as the length of

some liquid column: mercury, water, alcohol,


etc. Fig. 1/4 below shows a manometer set-up.
A

Atmospheric

Pressure at V
Aacuum pressure at A

Fig. 1/3

PRESSURE MANOMETERS
If a length of column of liquid, of cross-

sectional area A, is d, then the volume is V =


g
Ad and the force
of gravity on the column is F
= Ad, where is the specific weight of the
fluid.
= (g/g)
Eq. (1-6)
The corresponding
pressure is
g
p = F /A = d

MEASURING PRESSURE
Absolute pressure

(p = p + gp )

+ pg
Atmospheric pressure
p

(p g= 0, p = p)

p g vacuum
p

Absolute pressure

P
Zero absolute or total vacuum

(p = p p
g )

(p = 0, pg = p)

GAGE PRESSURE

Open to atmosphere

hg

p = p + p )

pg

V
Ahg
Fg
p =
g ------ + ------- + --------A
A
A

ghg
ghg
p =
g h g = -------- = -------kv
k

GAGE PRESSURE
PROBLEM # 1:

A 30-m vertical column of fluid (density =


1878 kg/m) is located where g = 9.65 mps.
Find the pressure at the base of the column.
Solution:
gghg[9.65 m/s] [1878 kg
/m]
m
p g= --------- = ----------------------------------- (30
kg m -m
k
m)
1 ---------N-s
g

p = 543,680 N/m or 543.68 kPa (gage)

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
As previously mentioned, a barometer is used

to measure atmospheric pressure.


Atmospheric pressure differs according to
location as well as weather conditions.

Where h = the height of column of


h liquid supported by
atmospheric pressure p

Schematic drawing of simple


mercury barometer with vertical
mercury column and reservoir at base

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
PROBLEM # 2:

A vertical column of water will be supported to


what height by standard atmospheric
pressure?
Solution:
At standard
condition,
HO
= 62.4 lb/ft p = 14.7 psi
p [14.7 lb/in][144 in/ft]
62.4 lb/ft
h =HO
------ = --------------------------------= 33.9 ft

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The specific gravity (sp.gr) of a substance is the

ratio of the specific weight of the substance to that


of water.
sp. gr. = -------

HO

PROBLEM # 4:

The pressure of a boiler is 9.5 kg/cm. The


barometric pressure of the atmosphere is 768 mm
HG. Find the absolute pressure in the boiler. (ME
Board problem Oct 1987).

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
PROBLEM # 4:

Solution:
p g= 9.5 kg/cm
h = 768 mm Hg
At standard conditions,
=HO1000 kg/m
p =Hg( )(h) = Hg
(sp.gr.)
( )(h)
HO
(13.6)[1000 kg/m)(0.768 m)= 1.04
kg
= ---------------------------------------cm
10,000 cm/m
-----

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
PROBLEM # 4:

Solution contd:
p = p g+ p = 1.04 + 9.5
p = 10.54 kg/cm

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
The absolute pressure, say psia, can be

determined from the gage pressure as follows:


absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure
gage pressureEq. (1-8)
where: the positive sign applies when absolute
pressure is greater than atmospheric, and the
negative sign for absolute pressure less than
atmospheric.
The negative sign is for gage reading called
vacuum pressure or vacuum.

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
Each term in (1-8) should, of course, be in the

same pressure unit.


Equation (1-8), written to apply when the
gage proper is located in the atmosphere,
may be generalized by this statement:
The gage pressure is the difference in
pressures of the region to which it is attached
(via the threaded connection) and the region
in which the gage is located.

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
In equation form,

p = h
where: h = hg h , the height of column of
liquid supported by absolute pressure p.
If the liquid used in the barometer is mercury,
the atmospheric pressure becomes,
p =
h = (sp.gr.)
( )(h)
Hg HO
HOg
(13.6)[62.4
lb/ft)(h
in)
= --------------------------------1728 in/ft

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
p = 0.491 h, lb/in
where: h = column of mercury in inches
then, p = g0.491 h g, lb/in
and, p = 0.491 h, lb/in

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
PROBLEM # 5:

A pressure gage registers 40 psig in a region


where the barometer reads 14.5 psia. Find the
absolute pressure in psia and in kPa.
Solution:
14.5 + 40 = 54.5 psia
1 kgm

1 newton

a = 1 m/s

1 slug

1 lbf

a = 1 ft/s

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
PROBLEM # 5:

Solution contd:

lbm
[1 kg m ][2.205 -----kgm
1 kgm = ----------------------------= 0.06853
lbm
slug
32.174 ------slug
1 m/s = [1 m/s][3.28 ft/m] = 3.28 ft/s
0.06853 slug

F, lbf
A = 3.28 ft/s

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
PROBLEM # 5:

Solution contd:
F =ma
------ = (0.06863 slug)[3.28 ft/s] = 0.2248 lb
f
k
1 newton = 0.2248 lb
1 lb = 4.4484 newtons
f

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
PROBLEM # 5:

Solution contd:
lb)[4.4484 N/lb][39.37 1n/m]
1 ----- lb=(1---------------------------------------in
in
N
1 ----- lb= 6895 ----m
in
N
p = [54.5lb-----] 6895
m ----375.78 kPa
lb
in
in

= 375,780Pa or

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
PROBLEM # 6:

Given the barometric pressure of 14.7 psia


(29.92 in Hg abs), make these conversions:
(a) 80 psig to psia and to atmosphere,
(b) 20 in. Hg vacuum to in. Hg abs and to psia,
(c) 10 psia to psi vacuum and to Pa,
(d) 15 in. Hg gage to psia, to torrs, and to Pa.
Note: 1 atmosphere = 760 torrs

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
PROBLEM # 6:

Solution:
(a) p = pg + p = 14.7 + 80 = 94.7 psia
80 psig
p = ------------ = 5.44 atmospheres
psia
14.7 ------atm

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
PROBLEM # 6:

Solution contd:
(b)

h = 9.92 in. Hg abs

h g= 20 in. p = 0.491 h
h = 29.92 in.

p = (0.491)(9.92)
h

= 4.87 psia

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
PROBLEM # 6:

Solution contd:
(b)
pg

p =g 4.7 psi vacuum


p =g (14.7 psi)[6895 Pa/psia]

p = 14.7 psia
p = 10 psia

= 32,407 Pa (gage)

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
PROBLEM # 6:

Solution contd:
h = 29.92 + 15 = 44.92 in. Hg abs
(c)

h g= p
15=in0.491 h = (0.491)(44.92) = 22.06 p

(15)(760)
p = -------------= 381 torrs
g
29.92
h = 29.92=in[0.491 psi/in][15 in][6895 Pa/psi]

= 50,780 Pa (gage)

ASSIGNMENT NOVEMBER 18,


2014
For next meeting, submit in one sheet of bond paper. Write your name,

subject/section, date and write the problem statement. Please write legibly.
Non-compliance will mean non-acceptance of your assignment.

1. A vacuum gage mounted on a condenser reads

0.66 m Hg. What is the absolute pressure in the


condenser in kPa when the atmospheric pressure is
101.3 kPa?
2. Convert the following readings of pressure to kPa
absolute, assuming that the barometer reads 760
mm Hg: (a) 90 cm Hg abs; (b) 40 cm Hg vacuum;
(c) 100 psig; (d) 8 in. Hg vacuum, and (e) 76 in. Hg
gage.

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