BIOLOGY

CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS

Fourth Edition
Neil A. Campbell Jane B. Reece Lawrence G. Mitchell Martha R. Taylor

CHAPTER 2
The Chemical Basis of Life
Modules 2.9 2.17
From PowerPoint Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

THE PROPERTIES OF WATER

2.9 Water is a polar molecule
Atoms in a covalently bonded molecule may
share electrons equally, creating a nonpolar
molecule
If electrons are shared unequally, a polar
molecule is created

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 In a water molecule, oxygen exerts a stronger

pull on the shared electrons than hydrogen
This makes the oxygen
end of the molecule
slightly negatively
charged

()

The hydrogen end of

the molecule is
slightly positively
charged
Water is therefore a
polar molecule
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()

O
H
(+)

H
(+)

Figure 2.9

2.10 Overview: Waters polarity leads to hydrogen

bonding and other unusual properties
The charged regions
on water molecules
are attracted to the
oppositely charged
regions on nearby
molecules

Hydrogen bond

This attraction
forms weak bonds
called hydrogen
bonds
Figure 2.10A
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 Like no other common substance, water exists

in nature in all three physical states:
as a solid
as a liquid
as a gas

Figure 2.10B

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2.11 Hydrogen bonds make liquid water cohesive

Due to hydrogen
bonding, water
molecules can move
from a plants roots to
its leaves
Insects can walk on
water due to surface
tension created by
cohesive water
molecules
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 2.11

2.12 Waters hydrogen bonds moderate

temperature
It takes a lot of energy to disrupt hydrogen
bonds
Therefore water is able to absorb a great deal of
heat energy without a large increase in
temperature
As water cools, a slight drop in temperature
releases a large amount of heat

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 A water molecule takes a large amount of energy

with it when it evaporates
This leads to evaporative cooling

Figure 2.12
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2.13 Ice is less dense than liquid water

Molecules in ice are farther apart than those in
liquid water

Hydrogen bond

ICE
Hydrogen bonds are stable
Figure 2.13
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LIQUID WATER
Hydrogen bonds constantly
break and re-form

 Ice is therefore less dense than liquid water,

which causes it to float
If ice sank, it would seldom have a chance to
thaw
Ponds, lakes, and oceans would eventually
freeze solid

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

2.14 Water is a versatile solvent

Solutes whose charges or polarity allow them to
stick to water molecules dissolve in water
They form
aqueous
solutions

Na+

Na+

Cl

Cl

Ions in
solution
Figure 2.14
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Salt
crystal

2.15 The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and

basic conditions
A compound that releases H+ ions in solution is
an acid, and one that accepts H+ ions in solution
is a base
Acidity is measured on the pH scale:
0-7 is acidic
8-14 is basic
Pure water and solutions that are neither basic
nor acidic are neutral, with a pH of 7
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 The pH
scale

H+
OH

Acidic solution

Increasingly ACIDIC
(Higher concentration of
H+)

pH scale

Neutral
solution

Figure 2.15

Basic solution

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Increasingly BASIC
(Lower concentration of
H+)

NEUTRAL
[H+] = [OH]

Lemon juice; gastric juice

Grapefruit juice
Tomato juice

Urine
PURE WATER
Human blood
Seawater

Milk of magnesia
Household ammonia
Household bleach
Oven cleaner

 Cells are kept close to pH 7 by buffers

Buffers are substances that resist pH change
They accept H+ ions when they are in excess and
donate H+ ions when they are depleted
Buffers are not foolproof

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

2.16 Connection: Acid precipitation threatens the

environment
Some ecosystems are threatened by acid
precipitation
Acid precipitation is formed when air pollutants
from burning fossil fuels combine with water
vapor in the air to form sulfuric and nitric acids

Figure 2.16A
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 These acids can kill fish, damage buildings, and

injure trees
Regulations, new technology, and energy
conservation may help us reduce acid
precipitation

Figure 2.16B
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REARRANGEMENTS OF ATOMS
2.17 Chemical reactions rearrange matter
In a chemical reaction:
reactants interact
atoms rearrange
products result

Figure 2.17A

2 H2

O2

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2 H2O

 Living cells carry out thousands of chemical

reactions that rearrange matter in significant
ways

Beta-carotene
Figure 2.17B
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Vitamin A
(2 molecules)