Comparative

Anatomy
Bone
Chapters 7, 8, & 9

Bone Legacy

Exoskeleton or dermal skeleton

Dermal bony armor of ostracoderms
Bony scales in ancient fish

Cranial dermal armor arose from

neural crest cells

Endoskeleton
Internal to skin
Where once exoskeleton

Ex: clavicle, nasal, frontal, and parietal bone

Other endoskeletal elements were

never part of the dermal skeleton

Ex: scapula, vertebrae, ribs, sternum,

brain case, and extremity bones

Bone Evidence

All bone develops from mesenchyme

Neural crest cells
Membrane bone- arises from
mesenchyme without passing through
cartilaginous intermediate

exoskeleton

Replacement bone- arises from existing

cartilage

endoskeleton

Endoskeletal Tissues

Visceral Skeleton

Jaw cartilages and ear ossicles

Weberian ossicles of fish (ear ossicles)

Derived from transverse processes of

anterior most vertebrae

Somatic Skeleton
Remaining internal bones developing
from mesoderm proper
Somite and scleratome

Axial Skeleton
Appendicular Skeleton

Vertebrae Development
Arise from sclerotome cells of somites
Morphogenesis

Sclerotome divides into posterior and

anterior halves
Halves join with segments of adjacent
sclerotomes
Centrum formed from junction
Vertebrae are intersegmental
Myotome doesnt move
Posterior segment forms costal process

Site of rib attachment

Vertebrae Development

Figure 9.1: (a) sclerotome divides

(b) halves join with adjacent
halves of next sclerotome (c)
junction forms centrum.
Figure 9.2: Developing
vertebral column showing
intersegmental position.

Axial Skeleton Vertebrae

Cartilaginous or bony
From occipital region to tail
Vertebrae types based on centrum
structure

Centrum is common feature in all

vertebrae

Centrum Structure
Acelous- flat anterior and posterior surface

Mammals

Amphicelous- concavities of anterior and

posterior surfaces

Fish, primitive salamanders

Procelous- concanvity on anterior surface

Most reptiles

Opisthocelous- concavity of posterior

surface

Most salamanders

Heterocelous- saddle-shaped

Neck of birds and turtles

Figure 9.3: Vertebral types based on articular

surface of centra.

Vertebrae Evolution
Transition from
crossopterygians to
labyrinthodonts
Different types of vertebrae
came from primitive,
rachitomous labyrinthodont
vertebrae

Two pleurocentra and Ushaped hypocentrum

Hypocentrum is lost and
pleurocentrum enlarges and
gives rise to centrum of
modern amniote

Figure 9.4: Modifications

from labyrinthodont to
modern amniote vertebrae.
Hypocentrum is diagonal
lines. Pleurocentrum is red.

Vertebrae Grouping
Grouped according to body
region
Amphibians

First to possess a cervical

vertebrae

Figure 9.5:
Single cervical
vertebrae of
anuran.

Figure 9.6:
Regions of
vertebral
column

Reptile Vertebrae

Atlas as 1st and axis

as 2nd cervicals
Turtle: 8 cervicals,
2 sacrals, 10
dorsals, 16-30
caudals
Alligator: 8
cervicals, 11
thoracic, 5 lumbar,
2 sacrals, up to 40
caudals

Figure 9.7: atlas and axis cervical v

Figure 9.8: Dorsal view of sacral

vertebrae of vertebrates.

Bird Vertebrae

Possess atlas and axis

13-14 free cervicals, 4 fused
thoracics, fused synsacrum, free
caudals, pygostyle

Figure 9.9: Pigeon vertebral column.

Synsacrum
Fuses with pelvic
bone
Reduction in bone
mass

Figure 9.10: Pigeon skeleton:

trunk, tail, and pectoral girdle.

Figure 9.11: Synsacrum and

pelvic girdle left lateral (a)
and ventral (b) views.

Mammal Vertebrae

most have 7 cervicals

12 thoracic and 5 lumbar compose
dorsal vertebrae
ancestral mammals possessed ~ 27
presacrals
sacrum 2-5 fused vertebrae (ankylosed)
caudals are variable

primates have 2-5 fused into coccyx

Ribs
Dogfish- develop dorsal ribs
Most teleost- develop ventral ribs
Tetrapods- have dorsal and
ventral ribs

Dorsal ribs lost, enlargement of head

of proximal ribs
2 portions articulate
with vertebrae

Tuberculum- dorsal head

Capitulum- ventral head
Figure 9.12: Rib types - Dorsal and
ventral ribs.

Agnathans- no ribs
Amphibians- ribs
never reach
sternum
Birds- flat
Figure 9.13: Unicate processes of bird.
processes
extending off ribs
posteriorly
(unicate processes)

Figure 9.14: Vertebrae and ribs of

alligator.

Sternum

Tetrapod structure
Amphibians- poorly formed
Reptiles- cartilaginous plates

Snakes, legless lizards, turtles have no

sternum
Alligator- extends down belly

Ribs fused it sternum

Gastralia

Figure 9.15: Ribs and gastralia of alligator.

Birds- unusual, keeled sternum

in carinates
Mammals- well developed
sternum

Rod shaped
Segments: manubrium,
sternebrae, xiphisternum and
xiphoid process

Figure 9.16: Keeled sternum of Figure 9.17: Tetrapod sterna.

bird.

Heterotopic Bone

Develop by endochondral or
intramembranous ossification
In areas subject to continual stress
Ex: os cordis, rostral bone, os penis, os
clitoridis

Os cordis- interventricular
septum in deer heart
Rostral bone- snout of pig
Os penis (baculum)embedded in penis of
lower primates
Os clitoridis- embedded in
clitoris of otters
9.18:
Others include falciform, Figure
Heterotopic bones
(book figure 7.11).
sesamoid, patella,
pisiform

Skull and Visceral

Skeleton

Two functionally independent

cartilaginous components derived from
replacement bone
1. Neurocranium
2. Splanchnocranium

Figure 9.19: Placoderm skull;

neurocranium in blue;
splanchnocranium in yellow.

Neurocranium

Protects brain and anterior part of spinal cord

Sense organ capsules
Cartilaginous brain case is embryonic
adaptation
Four ossification centers

Figure 9.20: Development of cartilaginous

neurocranium.

Neurocranium Ossification
Centers

Occiptial Region
Sphenoid
Region
Ethmoid Region
Otic Region

Figure 9.21: Neurocranium of

human skull.

Occipital Region
Basioccipital, 2 exoccipitals,
suproccipital
Forms single occipital bone in
mammals

Sphenoid Region
Basisphenoid, orbitosphenoid,
presphenoid, laterosphenoid
Fuse to form one sphenoid
bone in mammals

Figure 9.22: Sphenoid bone.

Figure 9.23: Human skull (a)

cribriform plate (b) crista galli (c)
frontal bone (d) sphenoid bone
(e) temporal bone (f) sella
turcica.

Figure 9.24: Sphenoid bone.

Ethmoid Region
Anterior to sphenoid
Cribriform plate, olfactory foramina,
terminals, mesamoid
Fuse to form ethmoid in mammals

Otic Region

Three bones in tetrapods

Prootic
Opisthotic
Epiotic

Unite to form petrosal bone in birds and

mammals

Forms temporal in mammals

Figure 9.25: Temporal bone of

human skull.
Figure 9.26: Multiple nature of
temporal bone of mammals.

Figure 9.27: Intramembranous

ossification of human skull. Embryonic,
cartilaginous neurocranium is black.
Neurocranial bones are red. Other is
dermal mesenchyme.

Splanchnocranium

Visceral skeleton
Visceral arches
Branchial region

Figure 9.28: Splanchnocranium of

human. Skeletal derivatives of 2nd
through 5th pharyngeal arches.

1st visceral archmandibular

Meckels cartilage
malleus
Pteryoquadrate incus

2nd visceral arch- hyoid

hyomandibula columella
(stapes)
ceratohyal styloid process
and anterior horn of hyoid
basihyal body of hyoid
Figure 9.29: Caudal end of

Meckels cartilage and

developing middle ear

Visceral-Cranial
Derivatives

Alisphenoid- part of
sphenoid
Malleus, incus- 1st arch
Stapes- 2nd arch
Styloid- 2nd arch
Hyoid- mainly basihyal

Figure 9.30: Derivatives of the

human visceral skeleton (red).

Figure 9.31: Skeletal derivatives of pharyngeal arches.

Dermatocranium

Membrane bone, not

replacement bone
Dermal bones of skull
Upper jaw and face, palates,
mandible

Figure 9.32: Pattern that tetrapod dermatocrania

may have evolved.

Dermatocranium (cont.)

Figure 9.33: Dog skull showing

dermatocranium (pink),
chondrocranium (blue), and
splanchnocranium (yellow).

Figure 9.34: Endochondral bones

(red) of mammalian skull.

Dermatocranial Elements

Nasal
Squamosal
Secondary palate- premaxilla, maxilla,
jugal
Primary palate- vomer, palatine,
pterygoid

Neurocranial Elements

Cribriform
Ethmoid
Otic complex
Temporal bone

Splanchnocranial
Elements

Maleus, incus, stapes

Styloid process- hyoid

Visceral Arches of Man

Styloid processes
Body of hyoid
Thyroid
Cricoid

Middle Ear Bones

Hammer (malleus_
Anvil (incus)
Stirrup (stapes)
Not homologous to weberian ossicles
in teleost fish

Modified transverse processes of

anteriormost vertebrae in some fishes.

Appendicular Skeleton

Pectoral Girdle
Pelvic Girdle
Appendages
Adaptations for Speed

Pectoral Girdle

2 sets of elements: cartilage

or replacement bone and
membrane bone

Replacement bones

Coracoid, scapula,
suprascapula

Membrane bones

Clavicle, cleithrum,
supracleithrum
Figure 9.35: Pectoral girdle
phylogenetic lines.
Dermal bones are red.

Reduction in number
of bones through
evolution

Shark- only cartilagenous

components
Alligator- retains only
replacement bone
elements, no dermal bone
Mammals

(a)

Scapula of replacement
bone
Clavicle of membrane bone
(b)

Birds- two clavicles fuse

to form furcula
(wishbone)

Figure 9.36: Pectoral girdles of (a)

Polypterus and (b) shark.. Dermal
bones are red. Replacement bones are

Pelvic Girdle

No dermal elements
Three replacement
bones

Ilium, ischium, pubis

Triradiate pelvic
girdle- alligator and
dinosaur

Figure 9.37: Left halves of pelvic girdles s

parallel evolution.

Appendages

Single unit in both fore and hind limbs most

medial
Two units in fore and hind limb distal area

Figure 9.38: Dorsal view of left forelimb or forefin of Devonian tetrapo

Figure 9.40: Left pectoral fin of Devoni

[left] and forelimb of early tetrapod [rig
Figure 9.39: Cladogram of lobe-Fin fishes
and amphibians.

Small set of bones at wrist

and ankle
Pentameristic pattern of
phalanges
Reduction in number and
position of phalanges

Figure 9.41: Evolution of fins to limbs

Adaptations for Speed

Plantigrade
Flat on the ground
Primates

Digitigrade
Elevated
Carnivores

Unguligrade
Reduction in digits
Figure 9.42: Plantigrade, digitigrade, and
Two types
unguligrade feet. Ankle bones are black.

Metatarsals are grey.

Unguligrade Adaptation
Reduction in digits

Perissodactyls

Odd toed
Mesaxanic foot
Weight on enlarged
middle digit

Ex: horse

Artidodactyls

Even toed
Paraxonic foot
Weight equally
distributed on 3rd and
4th digits

Ex: camel

Figure 9.43: Unguligrade

adaptations in horse and camel.
Bones lost are white.

Locomotion Without
Limbs

Serpentine
Lateral undulation
Wave motion
Minimum 3 contact
points

(a)

Rectilinear
Straight line
(b)
Scutes on belly lift
Costocutaneous
muscles move the skin (c)

Figure 9.44: Serpentine locomotion (a)

and rectilinear locomotion (b & c).

Locomotion Without Limbs

(cont.)

Sidewinding
Minimum 2 contact points
Adaptation in sandy
habitats

Concertina
Minimum 2 contact points
Allows snake to move up
gutter
(a)

(b)

Figure 9.45: Sidewinding

locomotion (a) and concertina
locomotion (b).

End of Lecture