Heriot-Watt University

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

Fundamental Properties
of
Reservoir Rocks
Adrian C Todd

Introduction

Properties of rocks with respect to the fluids

contained and injected are important
characterisation parameters.

Influence reserves and mobility.

Reservoir engineer concerned with:

The quantities of fluids contained

The transmissivity of fluids through the rocks

and related properties

Chartacteristics of Reservoir Rocks

Factors which effect capacity and flow of fluids

are:

porosity

permeability

capillary pressure

compressibility

fluid saturation

Chartacteristics of Reservoir Rocks

For economic viability for oil & gas production

reservoir rock must exceed a:

minimum porosity

minimum thickness

minimum permeability

minimum area

Chartacteristics of Reservoir Rocks

For fluid production the rock must be permeable.

Sufficient large and interconnecting pores.

A permeable rock is porous.

Porous does not necessarily imply permeable.

Volcanic rocks, porous BUT pores not

interconnecting.
Shale, porous BUT pores very small.

Physical Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks

A typical reservoir rock - sandstone.

The shape and size and size distribution reflect:

source

physical and chemical processes exposed to:

crushing & grinding

tumbling action in streams or on dunes.

Physical Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks

Pore spaces in the reservoir rock provide the container

for accumulation of fluids.
Most commercial reservoirs occur in :

sandstones

limestone

dolomite.

Some occur in fractured shale

basement rocks.

Porosity is one of the most important rock properties.

Measure of the space available for accumulation of fluids

Porosity

Complex

Space between grains or limestone caves

sometimes good estimates from laboratory

studies
sometimes such measurement irrelevant

Porosity

Complicated nature illustrated by metal cast

of pores

Porosity

One classification based on pores space.

whether original or formed subsequently

Porosity
Isolated
pores cannot
contribute to
recoverable
reserves

Porosity

Pore volume
Porosity
x 100%
Bulk volume

Bulk volume Grain volume

Porosity
x 100%
Bulk volume

Pore volume
Porosity
x 100%
Pore volume+Grain volume
Porosity

Void volume
x 100%
Bulk volume

Porosity

Total Porosity
is the ratio of volumes of ALL
pores to the bulk material
regardless of pore
interconnectivity
Effective Porosity
is the ratio of interconnected
pore volume to bulk material
volume

Porosity-Range of values
Consider a assembly of mono size spheres
Minimum packing
gives porosity of
47.6%

Maximum packing
gives porosity of
26%

Porosity-Range of values

Packing & size of grains

Absolute size does not have a large impact.

Particle size distribution

Wide size distribution leads to low porosity

Particle shape
Strong impact in sedimentary process

Cementing material

Clays and minerals

Porosity-Range of values

Size distribution of grains effects porosity

Porosity-Range of values

Reservoir Porosity can range from 50% to 1.5%

Typical values are:

35 - 45%

Unconsolidated (young) Sands

20 - 35%

Consolidated Sandstone

15 - 20%

Strong (low permeability) Sandstone

5 - 20%

Limestone

10 - 30%

Dolomites

5 - 40%

Chalk

Subsurface Measurement

Surface measurements made on recovered

core.
Down hole measurements very sophisticated.
Downhole porosity related to acoustic and
radioactive properties of the rock.

Density Log

Density log attributed to the porosity of the

rock.
Needs good description of the mineralology.

L M 1 F

L M

F M
- Quartz = 2.65 g/cm3
Limestone = 2.71 g/cm3

Sonic Log

Measures response to acoustic energy through sonic

transducers
Time of travel related to acoustic properties of the
formation.
If mineralogy is not changing then travel time related
density and hence porosity.
Formation fluids will effect response.

TL TM 1 TF

TL TM

TF TM

- Quartz = 55s ft-1

Limestone = 47 s ft-1
Water =190 s ft-1

Neutron Log

Another radioactive logging technique

Measures response of the hydrogen atoms in the
formation

Neutrons of specific energy fired into formation.

The radiated energy is detected by the tool.

This is related to the hydrogen in the hydrocarbon

and water phase.
The porosity determined by calibration

Average Porosity

Porosity normally distributed

An arithmetic mean can be used for
averaging.
n

i 1

a is the mean porosity

i is the porosity of the
i th core measurement
n the number of measurements

Permeability

The permeability of a rock is the description of

the ease with which fluid can pass through the
pore structure
Can be so low to be considered impermeable.
Such rocks may constitute a cap rock above
permeable reservoir.
Also include some clays,shales, chalk,
anhydrite and some highly cemented
sandstones.

Permeability

Term is used to link flowrate and pressure difference across a

section of porous rock.
In a rock the pore space , size and interconnection is very
complex.
The application of energy equations developed for flow in pipes is
difficult.
The parameter used for this flow behaviour is termed
permeability
The unit of permeability is the Darcy, named after a French
scientist investigating flow through filter beds.

Permeability

Darcys Law

kAP
Q
L

Q flowrate in cm 3 /sec
A cross sectional area of flow in cm 2
P pressure difference across ther sample, atmos.
viscosity in centipoise
L length of sample in cm.
k permeability in Darcy

Permeability

Darcys Law
The rate of flow of fluid through a given rock
varies directly with the pressure applied, the
area open to flow and varies inversely with the
viscosity of the fluid flowing and the length of
the porous rock.

The constant of proportionality is termed

Permeability

Permeability

Unit of permeability - Darcy

Permeability which will permit flow of one centipoise
fluid to flow at linear velocity of one cm per second
under a pressure gradient of one atmosphere per
centimetre.

Permeability

Darcys Experiment

A sandpack through which water flowed

1
Q A, h,
L

Qk

A h1 h 2
L

Permeability
Taking viscosity as a variable

Qk

A h1 h 2
L

Poiseuille equation for laminar pipe flow

r = radius of pipe of length L

Carmen Kozeny equation

for flow in packed beds
k = shape factor
d = particle size

r 4 P
Q
8L

d 2 3 1 dP

u '
2
k 1 dL

There is a very strong relationship between porosity and

permeability

Permeability

Comparing equations.

Q
P
k
A
L

Darcy

Carmen Kozeny

d 2 3 1 dP
Q

u '
2
k 1 dL
A

It is not surprising therefore that there is a strong

relationship between permeability and porosity

d 2 3
k 1
'

Permeability

Practical unit-millidarcy, mD, 10-3 Darcy

Formations vary from a fraction of a millidarcy
to more than 10,000 millidarcy.
Clays and shales have permeabilities of 10 -2
to 10-6 mD.
These very low permeabilities make them act
as seals between layers.

Factors Affecting Permeability

Permeability is anisotropic
Horizontal permeabilities in a reservoir are
generally higher than vertical permeabilities.
Due to reservoir stresses
Particle shape as influenced by depositional
process.

Anisotropic permeability
Impact of ordered deposition

Anisotropic permeability
Horizontal
permeabilities
can be affected
by the
deposition
process

Anisotropic permeability

Porosity is a
non directional
property
It is isotropic

Dimensions of Permeability
g
dz
Darcys Equation V k dP
s

ds 1.0133 106 ds
Dimensions

L
M
Vs

T
LT
M
L
P= 2 g 2
LT
T

M
= 3
L
dP
M
= 2 2
dS L T

L kLT M
M

3 2
T
M L2 T
LT

L
k

T LT

kL

Assumptions in Darcys Law

Darcys Law assumes

Steady State Flow

Laminar Flow

Single phase only occupying 100% of

porosity

No reaction between fluid & rock

Homogenous rock

Steady State Flow

No transient flow regimes

Unrealistic in reservoir flow

OK for laboratory tests

Cores are small enough for transients to only

last for a few minutes.

Laminar Flow

i.e. no turbulent
flow
pressure drop due
to viscous forces
Valid for most
reservoirs

Turbulent Flow

Non Darcy Flow

Attributed to higher velocities

Pressure drop due to kinetic

energy losses
For example near well bore
flow in gas production
Essentially appears as an
extra pressure loss term in the
flow system

Single phase only

Achieved in the laboratory through cleaning

cores
In the reservoir except for aquifer water flow
there is more than one phase present.
Concept of relative permeability used to
describe more complex flow regime.

No reaction between fluid & rock

Some cases when this will not happen

Hydraulic fracturing

Acidising.

Water flooding sometimes generates fines

from clays etc.

Applications of Darcys Law Horizontal Linear Incompressible System

Basic Darcy Equation

k dP
g
dz
Vs

ds 1.0133 10 6 ds
kA dP
QV V Q

A dx

Q
Vs Vx
A
L

P2

kA
Q dx
dP

P1
o

kA
Q L 0
P2 P1

kA P1 P2
L

Applications of Darcys Law Horizontal

Linear
Compressible
The laboratory
set up for
this would be: Ideal Gas
System

Flow rate, Qb, measured at ambient pressure, Pb

Q in the core at P,
Q b Pb
For ideal gas:

QP Q b Pb

Horizontal Linear Compressible Ideal Gas

kA P
System
Q
dx

Q b Pb
kA P

P
dx

2
1

kA P2 P
Q b Pb L 0

P2

kA
Q b Pb dx
PdP

P1
o

Qb

2Q b Pb L

2
1

A P P2

kA P1 P2
2LPb

Comparing Equations
Gas
Qb

2
1

kA P P2
2LPb

Liquid
2

kA P1 P2
L

In some circumstances the mean flow

rate is measured at a mean pressure.
For a core this is the mean of the
upstream and downstream pressure.

P1 P2
P
and Q volume flow rate at P
2

QP Q b Pb

Comparing Equations
Pb Q b PQ

kA P1 P2

2L

kA P1 P2 P1 P2
1
P1 P2 Q
2
2L
Q

kA P1 P2
L

The ideal gas permeability can be calculated from the

liquid equation using the mean flow measured at
mean pressure.

Radial Linear Incompressible Liquid System

k dP
g
dz
Vs

ds 1.0133 106 ds

Vs Vr

Q
A

ds = -dr
since the direction of flow is opposite to the co-ordinate system
For radial geometry the area A is radius dependent
A=2rh

Radial Linear Incompressible Liquid System

Darcys law

Q
k P

2rh
dr
re

Pe

Q dr k
dP

2h rw r Pw
Q
k
ln re ln rw Pe Pw
2h

Radial Darcy Equation

Incompressible flow

2kh Pe Pw
Q
ln re

ln rw

Horizontal-Radial Linear Compressible Gas System

k dP
g
dz
Vs

ds 1.0133 106 ds

Q
k P

2rh
dr

Q b Pb
k P
2rh
P
dr

Q b Pb
Q
P

QP Q b Pb

re

Pe

dr 2kh
Q b Pb
dP

r
Pw
rw

re
2kh Pe Pw
Q b Pb ln

2
rw

Qb

kh
re
Pb ln
rw

Pw

Field Units

Measurements in the field often quoted in field units. A

conversion is required for compatibility with Darcy equation.

Flow rate, Q - bbl/day or ft3/day or m3/day

Permeability, k - darcy

Thickness, h - feet or metre

Pressure, P - psia

Viscosity, - centipoise

Radius. R - feet or metre

Length, L - feet or metre

kA P1 P2
L

to oil field units

gives

kA P1 P2
bbl
Q
1.1271
day
L

Klinkenberg Effect

Darcys law should be the same irrespective

of transmitted fluids.
Since viscosity is in the equation
Measurements on gas compared to liquid give
higher values than the liquid for some
conditions.
The phenomena is attributed to Klinkenberg.

Klinkenberg Effect

Considered due to the effect of slippage of gas

molecules along grain surfaces.
Occurs when the diameter of the pore throat
approaches mean free path of the gas.
Darcys law assumes laminar flow and viscous theory
specifies zero velocity at the boundary.
Not valid when mean free path approaches diameter
of pore.
Result there is insufficient gas molecules to form a
zero velocity.

Klinkenberg Effect

Mean free path function

of size of molecule.
Smaller the molecule ,
the larger the effect
Gas permeabilty is
plotted versus reciprocal
mean pressure

Klinkenberg Effect
Measurements made in gas permeability set
up

Liquid permeabilty
0 reciprocal mean pressure
mean pressure infinity
Klinkenberg equation

kG
kL
b
1
Pm

b =Slope of line
Effect greatest for low permeabilty rock at low mean
pressures.

Reactive Fluids

Darcys law assumes no reaction with the

formation.
Many formation with clays react with water to
give lower permeability.
Lower permeability in formation than gas based
measurements in the laboratory.
Water injected into the formation may severely
reduce permeability due to clay swelling.

Average Permeability

Permeability is not normally distributed but

has an exponential function.
Geometric mean is used to obtain average
reservoir permeability.

k avg

k1x k 2 x...k n

Stress Effects on Core MeasurementsStress Regimes

Impact of reservoir stresses on reservoir flow

and capacity an increasing interest.
Removing a core from the formation is to
remove all confining forces.

Allows rock matrix to expand in all directions.

Partially changing fluid flow paths.

Influence of Reservoir Stresses

Certain formations are subject to consolidation

when the net overburden stress is increased.
Subsidence of reservoir and surface formations.
Reduction in permeability and porosity of
formation
Relevance of measurements under simulated
reservoir stress conditions

Stresses associated with rock properties

Stresses associated with rock properties

Within a reservoir stresses can be expressed in

three directions

Stresses associated with rock properties

These are a
combination of
major and minor
stresses
This is more
acceptable but
only applies to a
vertical core plug
and therefore
vertical
permeability

Impact of
Overburden
Net overburden
pressure =
Stress

overburden pressure pore pressure

Isothermal Compressibility
1 dV
cf
V dP

Cf is the isothermal compressibility.

V is the volume

dV is the change in volume

dP is the change in pressure.

Negative sign as pressure increases volume

decreases.

Types of Compressibility

Matrix volume compressibility

The change in volume of the rock grains.

This is very small and usually not of interest in sandstones

Bulk volume compressibility

The change in unit volume of the rock.
This is of interest in reservoirs on the impact at the surface where subsidence
might occur.
Pore volume compressibility

Change in pore volume.

Of interest since it affects porosity

Effect of Stress on Permeability

As effect of
stress effects
pore volume.
It also effects
permeability as
the pore throat
radii reduces and
the permeability
declines.

Effect of Stress
on Permeability

In true triaxial
stress regime
stresses are not
identical and
therefore the strain
( pore throat radii
changes ), may
cause dilation in
different directions.

Influence of stresses

Influence of stresses on permeability

Uniaxial
Biaxial
Triaxial

Conventional core analysis measurements

Porosity-Permeability Relationships

Whereas for porosity there are downhole measurement

techniques.
There are no downhole methods for permeability.
Downhole permeability is usually obtained by flow and pressure
monitoring. - Well Testing.
Continued interest in porosity-permeability correlations.
If there is no recovered core for the section of interest, the
approach is to use downhole porosity to determine lab equivalent
porosity and then use a porosity-permeability correlation to
calculate permeability.

Porosity-Permeability Relationships

Porosity is an absolute property

Permeability is a secondary property.

It is influence by a range of basic parameters.

Size, shape and porosity.

Carmen -Kozeny equation

d 2 3
k 1
'

It is not surprising therefore that there are correlations

between porosity and permeability.
Different correlations probably reflect the impact of other
parameters, grain size and shape etc.

PorosityPermeability
Correlations
Downhole
permeability

Lab. porosity

Downhole porosity

Surface Kinetics

Ideas discussed so far assume ONLY one fluid

present in the pore spaces
Reservoir rocks contain two or more phases and
other issues need to be considered.
Multiple phases introduce the concept of:
Wettability
Capillary Pressure
Relative Permeability

Surface tension

Surface free energy exists on all surfaces between states of

matter and between immiscible fluids
Surface tension results from molecular forces that cause the
surface of a liquid to assume smallest possible size.
The equilibrium in force between two dissimilar fluids is
disrupted at the interface

Oil-Water Boundary

Surface tension

Surface or Interfacial tension deforms the

outer surface of immiscible liquids to produce
droplets.
If the two liquids are on a surface, the IFT
deforms the liquids to produce a contact
angle.

Wettability

A wetting phase is one which spreads over the solid and

preferentially wets the solid.
The contact angle approaches zero and will always be less
than 90o.

A non-wetting
phase has little
affinity for the
surface
The contact
angle will be
greater than
90o.

Wettability

The composition
of the surface
affects the
interfacial tension.

Wetting on Reservoir Rocks

Water droplets on silica grains and clays

Non wetting

Clays

Wetting

Silica

Adhesion tension
A t sw wo wo Cos wo

Difference between
solid water and solid oil
interfacial tension.

Capillary Rise in Tube

Net force upwards 2r wo Cos
Net force downwards w gh ogh r 2 w o ghr 2

Interface is at equilibrium
2r wo Cos gh w o r 2

Capillary Pressure
Is the pressure difference across an
interface

2Cos
Pc
w o gh
r

Free water level is the

level with zero capillary
pressure
Capillary rise is also a
function of capillary
radius
Porous media consist of
a range of pore sizes
(capillaries) which result
in a transition zone from
100% water to the
residual water
saturation

Distribution of Capillaries

Distribution of Capillaries

Transition zone
Irreducible water
saturation
100% saturation
above FWL
Oil water contact,OWC
Free Water level, FWL

Capillary Pressure in Rock

The shape of capillary pressure curve depends on nature of rock

Rock is more than a series of different size tubes.

It is a complex network of interconnected pores

The height at which wetting liquid will stand above free water level
is directly proportional to capillary pressure which is related to size
and size distribution of pores.
It is also proportional to the IFT and contact angle
Inversely proportional to the pore radius and fluid density
difference

Fluid Distribution in Reservoir Rocks

Rock fluid property

Wettability
Rock/Fluid property

2Cos
Sw ; Pc
r

Rock property
Permeability
Porosity

Fluid Distribution in Reservoir Rocks

Water wet, coarse grained sand and oolitic and vuggy

carbonates with large pores have low capillary pressure..
Silty, fine grained sands have high capillary pressure and water
saturation.
Water saturation reduces with increased height above the
hydrocarbon water contact.
The base of the 100% water satn limit is termed the water table.
The non identifiable level, the free water level is the level of zero
capillary pressure.

Fluid
Distribution in
Reservoir
Rocks
Transition zone
Irreducible water
saturation
100% saturation
above FWL
Oil water contact,OWC
Free Water level, FWL

Fluid Distribution in Reservoir Rocks

Parameters affecting capillary pressure

Rock wettability affects Pc.

Oil wet rocks have reduced
transition zones
Lower IFT reduces transition
zone
High IFT extends transition zone

Saturation history

Drainage saturation

Drainage of the wetting phase

Represents saturation before fluid production

Level of saturation dictated by capillary pressure.

Imbibition saturation

Results from increase in wetting phase and expulsion of hydrocarbons

The situation resulting from natural or forced water drive

The rising water table

Saturation history

Drainage effect
Small pore holding up
water above larger
pore

Saturation history

Imbibition effect
Larger pore limiting
entry to water by
cap.pressure

Density Difference

Large density (water-gas)

difference supresses
transition zone.
Small density differences
(water-oil ) increases
transition zone.

Layered Reservoirs

A characteristic of many reservoirs is their

layered nature with each layer having its oqn
capillary pressure characteristic

Free water level

The basis for the saturation profile

Relative Permeability

Relative permeability provides an extension of

Darcys Law to the presence of more than a
single fluid within the pore space.
A

Oil
Water

kk ro A dP
qo
o dl

kk rw A dP
qw
w dl

qo
o
qw
w

kro,krw - relative permeability k - absolute permeability

Relative Permeability

Permeability to a particular phase is reduced when a

second or third phase is present
Relative Permeability =

phase permeability when more than one phase is present

permeability to that phase alone

Relative permeability is normally reported as a fraction or

percentage.
It equals 1.0 or 100% when the phase is present on its own

k e k.k r

ke
kr
k

Relative permeability water -oil system

Residual oil saturation
Irreducible water saturation

Relative permeability gas -oil system

Relative Permeability Curves for Water-wet and Oil

Shape of rel perm
-wet systems

curves characteristic of
wetting qualities.
Shape of rel. perm
curves different for
water wet and oil wet
phases.
Drainage curves
and imbibition curves

Relative Permeability Curves for Water-wet and Oil

-wet systems
k -end point relative
ro

permeability to oil
Relative perm. to oil in
presence of irreducible water

krw -end point relative

permeability to water
Relative perm. to water in
presence of irreducible oil

Relative permeability

Imbibition relative permeability

Is displacement where the wetting phase saturation is
increasing.

For example in a water flood of a water wet rock.

Drainage relative permeability.

Is where the non wetting phase saturation is increasing

For example gas expulsion during primary depletion.

The condition existing in the transition zone at discovery.

Water displacement of oil

Prior to water displacement water exists as film around grain or in

dead end pores.

Presence of water has little effect on oil flow.

Relative perm approaches 100%.

Water invasion results in water invasion into small and large pores.

Imbibition relative permeability influences flow behaviour

Oil saturation decreases with decrease in oil relative permeability.

Oil remaining after flood out is termed residual oil

Oil remaining immobile after waterflood

Oil remaining is influenced by capillary

pressure and interfacial tension.
High residual oil saturation is a result of oil
ganglia retained in large pores as a result of
capillary forces.
Explained by Pore Doublet Model

Oil remaining immobile after

waterflood

Pore Doublet Model

Pore Doublet Model

Caplillary forces
have drawn water
into narrower pore

Pore Doublet
Model
Capilliary forces have
now isolated oil in large
pore
Oil trapped by
following equation
Pc

2Cos
r

2Cos
Pc
r
Oil can be moved by
enhanced oil
recovery methods

Enhanced oil recovery methods:

Surfactant flooding reduces IFT to reduce Pc
Miscible flooding -there is no interfacial tension
enabling oil ganglia to be pushed out

Mobility Ratio

An important perspective in oil displacement.

Relates mobility of displacing fluid to that of
displaced fluid.

A ratio of Darcys law for each fluid.

At residual saturation of the other fluid.

k 'rw / w
Mobility Ratio, M '
k ro / o

krw is the relative permeability at residual oil saturation

kro is the relative permeability at irreducible water saturation
End point relative permeabilities

Mobility Ratio

M 1 Stable displacement
Water

Oil

M 1 Unstable displacement
Water

Oil

Water

Oil

Water displacement of oil

k ro k ro

'

k rw 0
Sw Swc
0 = k rw = k rw
0 = k ro = k ro

'

'

Swc = Sw = 1 Sor
As water table rises

k rw k rw

'

k ro 0
Sw 1 Sor

Gas Displacement of Oil

Gas is a non-wetting
phase.
Gas permeability is
zero until a critical gas
saturation is reached.

Gas Displacement of Oil

Gas Displacement of Oil

Important in understanding solution gas drive