HOW PLANTS COLONIZED LAND -- Chapter 29

Algae along the shores of shallow ponds and lakes had

to adapt to periods of drying and gave rise to land
plants. This was a huge untapped resource that led to
the diversification of land plants.

Characteristics of land plants (not found in algae)

1. Apical meristems - localized regions on the tips of
shoots and roots where mitosis occurs rapidly to
allow lengthening. Cells produced at the meristem
will later differentiate into various tissue types.

2. Dependent embryos (=embryophytes) Embryo

multicellular
embryos are retained within the female parent andMaternal
tissue
nourished by placental transfer cells (analogous
to
placental mammals).

3. Alternation of Generation has both a haploid and

diploid phase to their life cycle.

4. Spores protected by walls - because land plant

spores are protected by tough walls, they can be
dispersed through the dry air, unlike algal spores
that must be dispersed through water.

5. Gametes formed in multicellular gametangia Female gametangia are called archegonia and each
archegonium produces one egg. Male gametangia
are called antheridia and each produces many
Antheridium
with sperm
sperm.
Archegonium
with egg

Alternation of generations
All land plants have 2 multicellular body forms, the
haploid gametophyte and the diploid sporophyte.

1. The gametophyte
produces haploid
gametes (eggs and
sperm).
2. The gametes fuse into a
diploid zygote, then
grows into the diploid
sporophyte.
3. The sporophyte produces
haploid spores by meiosis.
4. The spores grow into the
haploid gametophyte.

Land plants
Vascular plants

Origin of seed plants

(about 360 mya)

Origin of vascular plants

(about 420 mya)

Origin of land plants

(about 475 mya)

Ancestral
green alga

Angiosperms

Seed plants

Gymnosperms

Pterophytes

Lycophytes

Seedless vascular plants

Mosses

Hornworts

Liverworts

Charophyceans

Bryophytes

I.

Four groups of land plants

Bryophytes contains 3 phyla:
Hepatophyta - liverworts
Anthocerrophyta - hornworts
Bryophyta mosses

Marchantia polymorpha,
a thalloid liverwort

Anthoceros
hornwort species

Polytrichum commune,
hairy cap moss

Offspring develop from multicellular embryos

attached to the parent plant where they are
protected and nourished.
The gametophyte is the most conspicuous phase,
the sporophyte is smaller and shorter lived.

 most lack vascular tissue (veins) that transport

water and nutrients as they are only a few cells
thick and only a few centimeters tall.
bryophytes are distributed worldwide as a result
of their light spores that are easily carried on the
wind. They occur in extreme locations such as
deserts, mountain tops, and tundra. After extreme
dry periods, bryophytes will become active again.
They also have phenolic compounds in the cell
walls that prevent damage by UV light in high
altitudes and deserts. Probably the only type of
terrestrial plants present for 100 my before taller,
vascular plants began to appear.

Moss Life
Cycle

Raindrop

Key

Male
gametophyte

Haploid (n)

A sperm swims
through a film of
moisture to an
archegonium and
fertilizes the egg.

Antheridia

Protonemata

Diploid (2n)

Sperm

Bud

Spores develop into

threadlike protonemata.

The haploid
protonemata
produce buds
that grow into
gametophytes.

Most mosses have separate

male and female gametophytes,
with antheridia and archegonia,
respectively.

Bud
Egg
Gametophore

Spores

Female
Archegonia
gametophyte
Meiosis occurs and haploid
spores develop in the sporangium
of the sporophyte. When the
sporangium lid pops off, the
peristome teeth regulate gradual
release of the spores.

Peristome

The sporophyte grows a

long stalk, or seta, that emerges
from the archegonium.

Sporangium
MEIOSIS
Mature
sporophytes

Rhizoid

Seta
Calyptra
Capsule
(sporangium)
Foot

FERTILIZATION
(within archegonium)

Zygote
Embryo

Archegonium
Young
sporophyte
Capsule with
peristome (SEM)

Female
gametophytes

Attached by its foot, the

sporophyte remains nutritionally
dependent on the gametophyte.

The diploid zygote

develops into a
sporophyte embryo within
the archegonium.

Life cycle of mosses:

1. Spores (haploid) land on moist soil

2. They germinate and produce branched, one-cell

thick filaments called protonema that absorb
water and nutrients.

3. Buds with meristems sprout from the

protonemata and grow into gametophytes
(haploid: some will be male and others female.)
Rhizoids anchor the gametophyte to the soil,
but do not transport water or mineral like roots
do. The "leaves" are usually only one-cell thick
and lack a cuticle so that they can absorb water
and minerals when moisture is present; thus, not
true leaves.

4. Mature male gametophytes produce many sperm

in antheridia. Mature female gametophytes
produce a single egg in each archegonium.

5. The flagellated sperm are released in water

droplets and swim down the archgonia to fertilize
the eggs inside.

6. The embryo (diploid) is nourished and grows

inside the archegonium.
Zygot
e

Embr
yo

7. The embryo grows into a sporophyte (diploid) with

a seta (stalk) and spore-producing capsule.
Capsu
le
Operculu
m
Set
a

Electron
micrograph of
moss peristome
after operculum
has come off.

8. Meiosis occurs in the capsule resulting in millions

of spores.

9. The spores are slowly released with gusts of wind

and those that land on moist soil start the cycle

II. Pteridophytes - includes two phyla:

Lycophyta - Some extinct giant lycophytes
that were 2 m wide and 40 m tall in swamps. Much
smaller lycophytes continue today as "club
mosses" or "ground pines" (not true
mosses or
pines).

Extinct giant
lycophytes

Club
moss/ground

 Pterophyta - These include whisk ferns (genus

Psilotum) that are more primitive than most
pteridophytes because they lack true roots and
leaves. Horsetails (genus Equisetum) found in
moist places with stiff, jointed stems and whorls of
leaves (used to scrub pots). And, ferns the most
widespread
and diverse members of the phylum.

Psilotum (Whisk
fern)

Equisetum
(Horsetail)

Land plants
Vascular plants

Origin of seed plants

(about 360 mya)

Origin of vascular plants

(about 420 mya)

Origin of land plants

(about 475 mya)

Ancestral
green alga

Angiosperms

Seed plants

Gymnosperms

Pterophytes

Lycophytes

Seedless vascular plants

Mosses

Hornworts

Liverworts

Charophyceans

Bryophytes

Characteristics of Pteridophytes:
have vascular tissue (food-transporting phloem
and water- conducting xylem) and most have true
roots.

have branched sporophytes that are independent

of the
parental gametophyte.

lack seeds
the sporophyte (diploid) is the larger, more
complex
generation

ancient pteridophytes formed the Carboniferous

forests
290-360 mya and account for a majority of the
world's coal
deposits.

FernLifeCycle
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Spore

Antheridium

Young
gametophyte

MEIOSIS

Sporangium

Sperm
Archegonium
Egg

Sporangium

Mature
sporophyte

New
sporophyte

Zygote

Sorus

Gametophyte

Fiddlehead

FERTILIZATION

Lifecycleofferns:
1. Spore(haploid)landsinmoistshadedarea.

2. Growsintoaheartshapedgametophyte
calledaprothallusthatisphotosynthetic.
3. Thehomosporousgametophyte
producesbotharchegoniaand
antheridia;buttheeggsandsperm
matureatdifferenttimestoprevent
selffertilization.

4. Flagellatedspermswimthrough
moisturetoarchegoniaandfertilize
theeggwithin.

Fernspore

Fernprothallus
(gametophyte)

Homosporousgametophyte

5. Thediploidzygotegrowsintothe
sporophyte.Youngsporophytes
areoftencalledfiddleheads.

Sporophyte

6. Thesporophyteisdiploid.Itproduces
sporeproducingsoriontheunderside
ofthefrond.

Gametophyte

7. Thesporeslandonmoistsoilandstartthe
cycleover.
Fiddleheads

Fernwithsori

Sori(tan)with
sporangia(black)

Underneaththesoriarethesporangia.Theylooklikeahelmetwith
acrest.Thesepopopentoreleasethespores.

Frond

Pinnae

Stipe
Rhizome

Note:Terrestrialfernssuchasthegametophyteillustratedinthe
previousslidearehomosporous(produceasinglesporethatgrow
intoagametophytewithbotharchegoniaandantheridia).
However,someaquaticfernsareheterosporousproducing2
differentspores.Megasporesgrowintogametophyteswithonly
archegoniaandmicrosporesthatgrowintogametophyteswith
onlyantheridia.

SEED PLANTS - Chapter 30

Characteristics of seed plants:
1. There is continued reduction of the
gametophyte. The microscopic gametophyte
develops within, and is nourished by, the
sporangia of the parental sporophyte.
Sporophyte
(2n)

Sporophyte
(2n)

Gametophyte
(n)
Gametophyte
(n)

Sporophytedependenton
gametophyte(mossesand
otherbryophytes)

Largesporophyteand
small,independentgame
tophyte(fernsandother
seedlessvascularplants)

Microscopicfemale
gametophytes(n)in
ovulatecones
(dependent)

Sporophyte(2n),
thefloweringplant
(independent)
Microscopicmale
gametophytes(n)in
insidetheseparts
offlowers
(dependent)

Microscopicmale
gametophytes(n)
Inpollencones
(dependent)
Sporophyte(2n),
(independent)

Microscopicfemale
gametophytes(n)in
insidetheseparts
offlowers
(dependent)

Reducedgametophytedependentonsporophyte(seedplants:
gymnospermsandangiosperms)

2.Multi-celled seeds produced by the

gametophyte replaces the role played the singlecelled spore that was produced by the sporophyte.
The seed is now the resistant component of the
plant as well as the unit that is dispersed with the
tiny sporophyte packaged within.

3. Seed plants are heterosporous.

Megasporangia (diploid) produce
megaspores (haploid) which will then produce
the egg-containing female gametophyte (seed).
Microsporangia produce microspores which
give rise to sperm-containing male
Seedcoat
gametophyte
(=pollen
grains).
(derivedfrom
Integument(2n)
Female
gametophyte(n)

Eggnucleus(n)

Megasporangium
(2n)
Megaspore(n)
Unfertilizedovule

Malegametophyte
(withingerminating
pollengrain)(n)
Micropyle
Fertilizedovule

Discharged
spermnucleus(n)
Pollengrain(n)

integument)(2n)
Foodsupply
(female
gametophyte
tissue)(n)

Embryo(2n)
(newsporophyte)
Gymnospermseed

4. Pollen eliminated the water requirement for

fertilization.

Aflowerpollinatedby
honeybees.

Aflowerpollinatedby
hummingbirds.

Aflowerpollinatedbynocturnalanimals.

Land plants
Vascular plants

Origin of seed plants

(about 360 mya)

Origin of vascular plants

(about 420 mya)

Origin of land plants

(about 475 mya)

Ancestral
green alga

Angiosperms

Seed plants

Gymnosperms

Pterophytes

Lycophytes

Seedless vascular plants

Mosses

Hornworts

Liverworts

Charophyceans

Bryophytes

III.

Gymnosperms - include 4 phyla:

Ginkgophyta - ginkgo. Gingko biloba - the only
extant species.
Cycadophyta - the cycads
Gnetophyta - gnetophytes
Coniferophyta - conifers (pines, firs, spruces,
larches, yews,
junipers, cedars, cypresses, and
redwoods)

Cycad

Ginko(maleandfemale)

Ponderosapine

Gnetophyte(Ephedra)

Characteristics of gymnosperms:
have vascular tissue
have "naked seeds" (Seeds do not develop
inside fruit,
instead they are exposed on pine cone scales).
appeared 360 mya (Pangea)

Characteristics of conifers:
cones made of scale-like sporophylls bear
seeds.
dominate vast regions of the Northern
Hemisphere where
growing seasons are short.
Most are evergreen and carry out some
photosynthesis
during winter. (A few are
deciduous and drop their
needles).
needle-shaped leaves prevent drying. The
needle is covered
with a thick cuticle and
sporophylls
the stomata are sunken,
further
reducing
water loss.

cone

leaves

Life Cycle of :
1. The conifer tree is the sporophyte (diploid).
2.Scale-like sporophylls are packed together to
form male and female cones; sporangia develop
on the sporophylls.
3. Male pollen cones produce lots of
microsporangia that undergo meiosis to form
pollen (haploid gametophytes) in each sporophyll
and female ovulate cones produce two ovules
in every sporophyll.
4. Windblown pollen lands on the ovulate cone and
enters the micropyle. The pollen grain sprouts a
pollen tube that digests its way through the
megasporangium.

Key
Haploid(n)
Diploid(2n)

Ovule

Ovulate
cone

Pollen
cone
Mature
sporophyte
(2n)

Megasporocyte(2n)
Integument
Longitudinal
sectionof
ovulatecone

Megasporangium(2n)
Microsporocytes
(2n)

MEIOSIS
Longitudinal
sectionof
pollencone

Micropyle

Sporophyll
Microsporangium

Germinating
pollengrain

Pollen
grains(n)
(containingmale
gametophytes)

5. The diploid megaspore mother cell undergoes

meiosis. 3/4 of the haploid cells disintegrate
leaving 1 surviving haploid megaspore which
undergoes mitosis to produce a multi-celled
haploid gametophyte with 2-3 eggs.
6. The male gametophyte has produced two sperm
cells of which one is injected into the egg by the
pollen tube and fertilizes one of the eggs,
restoring the diploid sporophyte. (If more than
one egg gets fertilized, only one embryo
develops).
7. The remaining gametophyte nourishes the
sporophytic embryo until the seed falls to the
ground and the embryo becomes a seedling,
able to make its own food by photosynthesis and
absorb nutrients through its roots. Note: each

Key
Haploid(n)
Diploid(2n)

Ovule

Ovulate
cone

Pollen
cone
Mature
sporophyte
(2n)

Megasporocyte(2n)
Integument
Longitudinal
sectionof
ovulatecone

Microsporocytes
(2n)

Germinating
pollengrain

MEIOSIS
Longitudinal
sectionof
pollencone

Micropyle

Sporophyll
Microsporangium

Seedling

Pollen
grains(n)
(containingmale
gametophytes)

MEIOSIS

Surviving
megaspore(n)

Germinating
pollengrain
Archegonium
Egg(n)
Female
Gametophyte(n)

Seedsonsurface
ofovulatescale

Germinating
pollengrain(n)
Foodreserves
(gametophyte
tissue)(n)

Embryo
(newsporophyte)
(2n)

Megasporangium(2n)

Seedcoat
(derivedfrom
parent
sporophyte)(2n)

Discharged
spermnucleus(n)
Pollen
tube

FERTILIZATION

Eggnucleus(n)

Integument

IV. Angiosperms (flowering plants) -all put into

the phylum Anthophyta. This phylum is
divided into two main classes:
Monocots - leaves have parallel veins. Ex.
lilies, orchids, yuccas, palms, grasses,
sugar cane, corn, wheat, and rice.
Eudicots - leaves have net-like venation.
Two different groups have recently been
described: eudicots = true dicots which includes the majority of dicots. Ex.
roses, peas, buttercups, sunflowers, oaks,
maples, etc. But other dicots are
considered "earlier lineages" such as water
lilies and star anise.
Note:

Learn the following 6 differences

MONOCOTS
Orchid
(Lemboglossum
rossii)

EUDICOTS
Monocot
Characteristics

Eudicot
Characteristics

Embryos

Onecotyledon

California
poppy
(Eschscholzia
california)

Twocotyledons

Leaf
venation

Pyreneanoak
(Quercus
pyrenaica)

Veinsusually
netlike

Veinsusually
parallel

Stems

Pygmydatepalm(Phoenixroebelenii)

Vasculartissue
scattered

Vasculartissue
usuallyarranged
inring

MONOCOTS

EUDICOTS

Lily(Lilium
Enchantment)

Roots

Barley(Hordeumvulgare),agrass

Dogrose(Rosacanina),awildrose

Rootsystem
usuallyfibrous
(nomainroot)

Taproot(mainroot)
usuallypresent

Pollen
Pollengrainwith
oneopening

Stigma
Filament

Pollengrainwith
threeopenings

Flowers

Anther

Ovary

Floralorgans
usuallyin
multiplesofthree

Pea
(Lathyrusner
vosus,Lord
Ansons
bluepea),
alegume

Floralorgansusually
inmultiplesof
fourorfive

Zucchini
(Cucurbita
Pepo),female
(left),and
maleflowers

Characteristics of angiosperms:
I. Flowers:
flowers to aid pollination by wind, insects, and
other animals.
The flower is formed from 4 circles of specialized
leaves:
sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels.
Sepals generally green and protect the flower
before it opens.
Petals often colorful to attract pollinators. The
entire set of petals is called the corolla.
Stamens are male sporophylls that produce
microspores (pollen) that will grow into the
haploid male gametophyte (pollen tube). The
stamen is made of an anther where pollen is

Carpels are female sporophylls that produce

megaspores that will grow into the female
gametophyte. Pollen attaches to the sticky
stigma and the pollen tube will grow down the
style to reach the ovary. Within the ovary are
Carpel after
ovules
which will develop Stigma
into seeds
Stamen
Style
fertilization. Anther
Filament

Ovary

Petal
Sepal
Receptacle

Ovule

Some flowers have only one carpel, others have

multiple separate carpels, while yet others have
two or more fused carpels that cause a large
ovary with many ovule-containing chambers. (A
single carpel, or a group of fused carpels are
sometimes called a pistil).

OneCarple

MultipleSeparateCarpels

MultipleFusedCarpels

 "container seeds"- seeds develop within ovaries as

opposed to
being "naked" in the gymnosperms. It is thought
that the carpel
may have been a modified sporophyll that rolled
into a tube.
(Remember, the ovule develops into the seed.)

II Fruits:
Fruit - the mature ovary. As the seeds develop,
the ovary grows to become a thickened wall
(pericarp) of the fruit. Ex. pea pod (ovary) with
peas (ovules). The fruit protects the seed and
aids dispersal. Some fruits have wings to aid
dispersal by the wind (maples and dandelions),
some have burrs to aid dispersal by animals.

Classification of fruits:
Simple fruits are derived from a single ovary.
Ex. cherry and soy bean pod.

Aggregate fruits come from a single flower

that has several carpels. Ex. Blackberry

Multiple fruits develop from a group of flowers

in which the ovary walls fuse as the pericarp
thickens. Ex. Pineapple

Dry fruits also exist such as grains (wheat, rice,

corn, etc). There is a dry pericarp that adheres tightly
to the seed coat of the seed within.

Life cycle of angiosperms:

1. Like all seed plants, angiosperms are
heterosporous: Cells in the anther of the flower
of the sporophyte will go through meiosis to
produces microspores that will become the male
gametophyte (pollen). Cells within the ovule of
the ovary will also go through meiosis to produce
megaspores that will become the female
gametophytes (embryo sac).
2. The male gametophyte consists of two haploid
cells within the pollen grain. The embryo sac is
the female gametophyte and consists of only a few
cells, one of which is the egg.
3. Pollen is released from the anthers and is carried
by wind, insects or other animals to other plants

Key
Haploid(n)
Diploid(2n)
Microsporangium
Microsporocytes(2n)

Anther
Maturefloweron
Sporophyteplant
(2n)

MEIOSIS

Ovary

Microspore(n)
Ovulewith
megasporangium(2n)
Male
gametophyte
(inpollen
grain)
MEIOSIS

Megasporangium
(2n)
Surviving
megaspore
(n)

Femalegametophyte
(embryosac)

Antipodalcells
Polarnuclei
Synergids
Eggs(n)

Pollen
tube
Sperm
(n)

Generativecell
Tubecell

Developmentofamalegametophyte
(pollengrain)

Developmentofafemalegametophyte
(embryosac)

Pollensac
(microsporangium)
Mega
sporangium
Micro
sporocyte

Ovule
MEIOSIS

Mega
sporocyte
Integuments

Micropyle
Micro
spores(4)
Surviving
megaspore
Eachof4
microspores

MITOSIS
Generative
cell(will
form2
sperm)

Femalegametophyte
(embryosac)
Ovule

Male
gametophyte
(pollengrain)

Antipodal
cells(3)
Polar
nuclei(2)
Egg(1)

Integuments

Nucleusof
tubecell

Synergids(2)

20m
Key
tolabels
Haploid(n)
Diploid(2n)

100m

75m
(LM)

Ragweed
pollen
grain
(colorized
SEM)

Embryo
sac
(LM)

4. The pollen grain germinates and begins growing

a pollen tube down through the style of the
carpel. Each pollen grain has one tube nucleus
that facilitates growth of the pollen tube and two
sperm cells. When it reaches the
ovule, the pollen tube penetrates through the
micropyle and releases two sperm2Sperm
cells into
Tubenucleus
the embryo sac.
5. One sperm fuses with the egg to create the
diploid zygote. The other sperm fuses with
the two haploid polar nuclei in the large
central cell making triploid (3n) endosperm
which will nourish the embryo. This is called
double fertilization. This may have evolved
as a way to aid efficiency so that a plant does
not waste energy producing endosperm in those
ovules where the egg is not fertilized.

Key
Haploid(n)
Diploid(2n)
Microsporangium
Microsporocytes(2n)

Anther
Maturefloweron
sporophyteplant
(2n)

MEIOSIS

Microspore(n)
Ovulewith
megasporangium(2n)
Male
gametophyte
(inpollen
grain)

Ovary

Germinating
seed

MEIOSIS
Stigma
Megasporangium
(n)

Embryo(2n)
Endosperm
(food
supply)(3n)

Surviving
megaspore
(n)

Seed

Pollen
tube
Sperm

Pollen
tube

Seedcoat(2n)
Femalegametophyte
(embryosac)

Nucleusof
developing
endosperm
(3n)

Generativecell

Antipodalcells
Polarnuclei
Synergids
Eggs(n)

Style
Pollen
tube
Sperm
(n)

Zygote(2n)
Eggs
nucleus(n)
FERTILIZATION

Discharged
spermnuclei(n)

Tubecell

Pollen
grains

Pollen
grain

Stigma
Pollentube

Ifapollengrain
germinates,apollentube
growsdownthestyletoward
theovary.

Polar
nuclei

2sperm
Style
Ovary
Ovule(containing
female
gametophyte,or
embryosac)

Egg
Micropyle

Ovule
Polarnuclei
Thepollentube
dischargestwospermintothe
femalegametophyte(embryo
sac)withinanovule.

Onespermfertilizes
theegg,formingthezygote.
Theotherspermcombines
withthetwopolarnucleiof
theembryosacslarge
centralcell,forminga
triploidcellthatdevelops
intothenutritivetissue
calledendosperm.

Egg
Twosperm
abouttobe
discharged

Endosperm
nucleus(3n)
(2polarnuclei
plussperm)
Zygote(2n)
(eggplussperm)

6. The triploid endosperm nourishes the diploid

embryo as it develops within the seed. The
embryo has rudimentary roots and one or two
leaves called cotyledons while still inside the
seed. Note: the number of leaves is one way we
divide plants into groups: monocots have only
one seed leaf (corn) while dicots have two
(beans). You can determine this when the seed
first sprouts.

Monocotcorn

Dicotbean

Foliageleaves
Cotyledon
Epicotyl

Hypocotyl
Hypocotyl

Cotyledon

Cotyledon
Hypocotyl

Radicle
Seedcoat
Commongardenbean

Foliageleaves

Coleoptile

Coleoptile

Radicle
Maize

ANIMAL DIVERSITY - Chapter 32

Most animals reproduce sexually and the diploid
stage dominates their life cycle.
1. The smaller flagellated sperm fertilizes the larger,
non-motile egg to create a diploid zygote.
2. The zygote undergoes cleavage (cell division
without growth), resulting in a solid ball of cells
called the morula.
3. The cells move outward to form a hollow ball
called the blastula.
4. The cells begin to move in a process called
gastrulation and form layers of embryonic
tissues called a gastrula.
5. These embryonic tissues will later develop into
adult structures.

Levels of Complexity of Body Plans:

A. Unicellular Organization - body is a single
cell.
Example: Kingdom Protista
B. Diploblastic Organization - the entire body
is derived from only 2 embryonic tissue types:
1.
ectoderm -----> epidermis
2.endoderm ----> gastrodermis

Example: Phylum Porifera = sponges

Phylum Cnidaria = jellyfish & hydra

Some diploblastic organisms (such as jellyfish)

also have mesoglea in between their epidermis
and gastrodermis; but it came from either
endoderm or ectoderm.

C.Triploblastic Organization - the body is

derived from 3 embryonic tissue types:
1. ectoderm ---> epidermis, brain & spinal
column.
2. endoderm ---> gastrodermis, lungs & liver.
3. mesoderm ---> bone, muscles, blood &
ectoderm
kidneys.
endoderm
mesoderm

Triploblastic animals are further divided into 3

groups based on their body cavity:
1. Acoelomates "without coelom" - lack a body
cavity.

Example: Phylum Platyhelminthes = flatworms

2.Pseudocoelomates "false coelom" - have a

pseudocoel derived from the embryonic
blastocoel; thus, it is not lined by peritoneum
(of mesodermal origin).

Gut

Example: Phylum Nematoda = roundworms

3.Eucoelomates "true coelom" - have a true

coelom entirely lined by peritoneum of
mesodermal origin.
Gut

Example: Phylum Mollusca = snails & bivalves

Phylum Annelida =
earthworms
Phylum
Arthropoda = crayfish & insects
Phylum Echinodermata = starfish
Phylum Chordata = pig & man

ORIGINS OF MULTICELLULARITY?
Colonial hypothesis - colonial unicellular species
may have begun to divide up the labor, losing their
ability to exist independently. Could it have been
possible that a colony like Volvox began to behave
like a blastula and invaginate to create tissue
layers?
Somaticcells

Digestive
cavity

Reproductivecells
Colonialprotist,
andaggregateof
identicalcells

Hollowsphere
ofunspecialized
cells(shownin
crosssection)

Beginningofcell
specialization

Infolding

Gastrulalike
protoanimal

Syncytial hypothesis - perhaps multinucleated

protists
developed cell membranes between their nuclei to
become multicellular.
How many times did multicellularity arise?
-Are multicelled organisms monophyletic,
diphyletic, or
polyphyletic (derived from 1, 2, or many
unicellular ancestors)?
-Many believe that multicelled animals arose several
different
times (polyphyletic) because multicelled animals
were suddenly
present in large numbers in the fossil record.
-However, the similarity of organelles, DNA, and other

TYPES OF SYMMETRY:
Asymmetrical lacking symmetry; thus no way to
cut the object into two mirror images. Ex. Amoeba
and sponges.
Spherical symmetry any cut through any plane
will produce two mirror images. Ex. Volvox.
Radial symmetry (Radiata) any cut through one
plane produces mirror images. Ex. Hydra,
sea anemones, or jelly fish.
RadialSymmetry
Bilateral symmetry (Bilateria) only one cut
through only one plane produces mirror images.
Ex. Crayfish, humans.
BilateralSymmetry

SPONGES - Chapter 33
Sponges are referred to as Parazoa = beside the
animals because they have very poorly defined tissues
and no organs. All other animals are Eumetazoa = with
well-defined tissues and organs.
Kingdom - Animalia
Subkingdom - Parazoa
Phylum - Porifera (Sponges)
1. Multicellular
2. Poorly developed tissues
3. No organs
4. Adults sessile (stationary)
5. Mostly marine (some freshwater)

Cell types found in sponges:

Living cells:
Choanocytes - flagella beat to aid water flow.
Amoebocytes - amoeboid cells that crawl about
in the
mesohyl.
Pinacocytes - form protective layer called
pinacoderm.
Porocytes - Doughnut shaped cells that span the
body wall.
Support structures (not living):
Spicules - glass-like and sharp, produced by
amoebocytes; made of silica or calcium
carbonate.
Spongin - stiff fiber made of protein.
All of the living cell types are able to separate and
reorganize. Perhaps they were able to all live

Water flow: Ostia (of porocytes) spongocoel

out osculum.
Flagellum

Foodparticles
inmucus
Choanocyte
Collar

Choanocytes
Osculum
Azurevasesponge
(Callyspongiaplicifera)
Spongocoel

Phagocytosisof
foodparticles

Porocytes
Spicules
Pinacocytes

Amoebocyte
Mesohyl

Ostia

Amoebocyte

Sponge functions:
Ingestion - Sponges are filter feeders. The
flagella of the choanocytes beat to create water
flow, food particles (detritus, plankton, bacteria) are
trapped in the collar, then phagocytized by the
choanocytes.
Digestion is intracellular, lysosomes fuse with
the food vacuoles. Choanocytes pass the food
particles to the amoebocytes for digestion.
Egestion - released by exocytosis into the
spongocoel, then washed out the osculum.
Excretion - ammonia diffuses out into the
spongocoel, then washed out the osculum.
Gas exchange - O2 enters and CO2 leaves by

Asexual Reproduction:
Regeneration - If a sponge is cut into pieces, each
piece will grow into a new sponge.
Budding external bud breaks off and grows.
Gemmule formation - Packets (gemmules) of
essential cells become covered in an outer coat of
spicules and spongin. The parent sponge dies over
winter and in spring the cells exit and grow into a
new sponge.

Commercialsponging
operation

Gemmules

Sexual Reproduction Most sponges are monoecious (both sexes in one

body) and produce both eggs and sperm, but not at
the same time to prevent self-fertilization.
1. Some of the choanocytes lose their collars to
become sperm.
2. The sperm are released into the spongocoel and
flow out the
osculum.
3. They enter the ostia of other sponges.
4. The sperm are captured by choanocytes and
transferred to an egg (a choanocytes or
amoebocyte depending on species).
5. The sperm fertilizes the egg.
6. The zygote grows into an amphiblastula larva
with choanocytes on the outside.
7. The amphiblastula lands on substrate, turns
inside out, and grows into a sponge. amphiblastula

There are 3 different forms of sponges:

Asconoid - tiny (1/4 inch) with straight, parallel
walls.
Syconoid - a bit larger (2- 2 1/2 inches) with wavy
walls.
Leuconoid - can become huge (6-8 ft) with highly
convoluted walls.

Asconoid
(budding)

Syconoid

Leuconoid

Cnidaria - Chapter 33
Phylum Cnidaria (hydra, jellyfish, sea anemones,
and corals)
Characteristics:
1. radial symmetry (=Radiata)
2. have well-defined tissues (=Eumetazoa)
3. diploblastic - all tissues come from endoderm and
ectoderm.
Endoderm ---> gastrodermis
(adult)
Mouth/anus
Ectoderm
---> epidermis (adult)
Epidermis
There
is
jelly-like
mesoglea
between the tissue
Tentacle
Mesoglea
layers.
Gastrovascular
cavity
Gastrodermis

Polyp

Tentacle

Mouth/anus

Medusa

4. Always have tentacles.

5. Gastrovascular cavity (GVC) - internal space
that is used for digestion and for hydrostatic
support (holds water to keep the jellyfish firm and
allows muscles to push against the water-filled
space). Also distributes nutrients throughout body.
6. Most are dimorphic
- Medusa stage - is free-swimming and looks like
a
jellyfish.
- Polyp stage - is sedentary and look plant-like
(but it
is an animal!!!!)

medusae

polyps

7. Sensory organs consist of statocysts (hollow

cavity with a
solid particle that gravity pulls
down) that aid equilibrium
(balance). Also
Ciliated
have ocelli which detect light to aid in up receptorcells
vs. down orientation.
Cilia
statocysts

Statolith
Sensory
nervefibers

8. Nematocysts - stinging organelles used for

defense and
capture prey, filament
housed barb
in cells
triggerto
called cnidocytes.
Coiled
cnidocyte
Nematocyst

filament
operculum

barb

Discharged
Nematocyst

Treatment of Jellyfish Stings:

1. Lift (dont scrape) the tentacles off the skin.
2. Rinse with sea water (fresh water activates
nematocysts).
3. Vinegar or urine inactivates nematocysts.

 Ingestion - cnidarians are carnivorous and eat

small crustaceans, insect larvae, worms, and small
fish. Have a single opening that serves as both a
mouth and anus.
Digestive System extracellular digestion of
large food particles begins in the GVC. Followed by
phagocytosis and
intracellular digestion in the
gastrodermal cells.
Egestion - undigested food is expelled through
the mouth
no anus).
Circulatory system none, but the GVC helps
distribute nutrients and gases.

Excretory system none, ammonia diffuses out

 Respiratory system - gas exchange (O2 and

CO2) by diffusion through epidermis and
gastrodermis.
Nervous system very simple, neurons are
arranged in
a diffuse nerve net, as opposed to bundles of
nerves
found in higher animals.

Kingdom - Animalia
Phylum - Cnidaria
Class - Hydrozoa
Scyphozoa
Anthozoa
1. Both polyp
1. Polyp stage
medusa
and medusa
reduced or
present
absent
Ex. Hydra &
corals &
Obelia

Ex. Aurelia

1. No
stage
Ex.

sea anemones

Hydra:
- Most species of hydra are dioecious.
- hydra
have no medusa (but, they belong
testis
bud
to the class Hydrozoa).
ovary
- Reproduce either sexually by forming
ovaries and testes, or asexually by

ObeliaLifeCycle
(Hydrozoa)

Sexual
Reproduction

Asexual
Reproduction

gastrovascularcavity

ObeliaMedusa

Hydranth(entirefeedingstructure)
Tentacles
Hypostome(withmouth)

Hydrotheca(nonliving)

Perisarc(nonliving)

Gonangium(entirereproductivestructure)
Gonopore(opening)

Coenosarc(living)

Gonotheca(nonliving)
Medusabuds

ObeliaPolyp

AureliaLifeCycle
Asexual
Reproduction

Aurelia,IA

(Scyphozoa)

Sexual
Reproduction

NomuraJellyfish,TheGiantJellyofJapan

SeaAnemone
andCoral
(Anthozoa)

END OF
MATERIAL
FOR
EXAM 2