Air-Standard Diesel Cycle

The air-standard Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle that

approximates the Diesel combustion engine
Process
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-1

Description
Isentropic compression
Constant pressure heat addition
Isentropic expansion
Constant volume heat rejection

The P-v and T-s diagrams are

Thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle

th , Diesel
Now to find Qin and Qout.

Wnet
Qout

1
Qin
Qin

Apply the first law closed system to process 2-3, P = constant.

Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 23 U 23 P2 (V3 V2 )
Qnet , 23 Qin mCv (T3 T2 ) mR (T3 T2 )
Qin mC p (T3 T2 )

Apply the first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant (just as we did for the
Otto cycle)

Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 41 U 41
Qnet , 41 Qout mCv (T1 T4 )
Qout mCv (T1 T4 ) mCv (T4 T1 )
The thermal efficiency becomes

th , Diesel

Qout
1
Qin
mCv (T4 T1 )
1
mC p (T3 T2 )

 th , Diesel

Cv (T4 T1 )
1
C p (T3 T2 )
1 T1 (T4 / T1 1)
1
k T2 (T3 / T2 1)

What is T3/T2 ?

PV
PV
3 3
2 2 where P3 P2
T3
T2
T3 V3

rc
T2 V2

where rc is called the cutoff ratio, defined as V3 /V2, and is a measure of the
duration of the heat addition at constant pressure. Since the fuel is injected
directly into the cylinder, the cutoff ratio can be related to the number of degrees
that the crank rotated during the fuel injection into the cylinder.
4

What is T4/T1 ?

PV
PV
4 4
1 1 where V4 V1
T4
T1
T4 P4

T1 P1

Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

PV PV
k
1 1

k
2 2

and PV PV
k
4 4

k
3 3

Since V4 = V1 and P3 = P2, we divide the second equation by the first equation and
obtain

Therefore,

th , Diesel

1 T1 (T4 / T1 1)
1
k T2 (T3 / T2 1)
1 T1 rck 1
1
k T2 (rc 1)
1

1
r

k 1

r 1
k (rc 1)
k
c

DIESEL CYCLE EXAMPLE

An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 20 and a maximum
temperature of 2200 K. At the beginning of the compression process, air is at
95 kPa and 20C. Using the cold air standard assumptions temperature,
determine (a) the thermal efficiency and (b) the mean effective pressure.
P
2

qin

4
qout
1
v
v

Properties The properties of air at room temperature are cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK, cv =

0.718 kJ/kgK, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK, and k = 1.4 (Table A-2).

 V
T T 3
4
3 V
4

in

k 1

2.265V
2
T
3

V
4

k 1

2.265
T

3
r

k 1

2.265
2200 K

20

0.4

920.6 K

h h c T T 1.005 kJ/kg K 2200 971.1 K 1235 kJ/kg

3
2
p 3 2

out

u u c T T 0.718 kJ/kg K 920.6 293 K 450.6 kJ/kg

4
1
v 4
1
w

net, out

th

q
w

in

out

1235 450.6 784.4 kJ/kg

net, out 784.4 kJ/kg

63.5%
q
1235 kJ/kg
in

0.287 kPa m 3 /kg K 293 K

RT

v 1
0.885 m 3 /kg v
1
max
P
95 kPa
1
v

v
v max
min
2
r
w

w
kPa m 3
784.4 kJ/kg
net, out
net, out

933 kPa
MEP

v v
v 1 1/r 0.885 m 3 /kg 1 1/20
kJ
1
2
1

Example 2
An ideal Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18
and a cutoff ratio of 2. At the beginning of the
compression process, air is at 100 kPa, 27 C and
0.0018 m3. Utilizing the cold-air-standard assumptions,
determine
(a) the temperature and pressure of air at the end of
each process,
(b) the net work output,
(c) the thermal efficiency of this cycle, and
(d) the mean effective pressure for the cycle.

(a) State 1: air at p1 = 100 kPa, T1 = 300 K and

V1 = 0.0018 m3
V1 0.0018
V2

0.0001m3
r
18

V3 = rc V2 = 2 (0.0001) = 0.0002 m3
V4 = V1 = 0.0018 m3

Process 1-2: Isentropic compression

k 1
V1
1.4 1
T2 T1
300(18)
953.3 K
V2

 V1
p2 p1
V2

100(18)1.4 5719.8 kPa

Process 2-3: Constant-pressure heat addition

p3 = p2 = 5719.8 kPa
V3
p3 v 3 p 2 v 2
T3 T2 953.3(2)

T3
T2
V2
= 1906.6 K

Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion

V3
T4 T3
V4

k 1

0.0002
1906.6

0.0018

0.4

= 791.7 K

 V3
p 4 p3
V4

(b)

0.0002 1.4
5719.8(
) 263.9 kPa
0.0018

p1V1 100(0.0018)
m

0.0021kg
RT1
0.287(300)

Table A-2
cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK
cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK

Qin = m(h3 h2) = mcp(T3 T2)

= 0.0021(1.005)(1906.6 593.3) = 2.77 kJ

Qout = m(u4 u1) = mcv(T4 T1)

= 0.0021(0.718)(791.7 300) = 0.74 kJ

Wnet = Qnet = Qin Qout = 2.77 0.74 = 2.03 kJ

w net 2.03
(c)

0.733
qin
2.77
Wnet
2.03

= 1194.1 kPa
(d) MEP
V1 V2 0.0018 0.0001

Air-Standard Dual Cycle

By considering heat transfer to the air
undergoing the power cycle as occurring in two
steps: constant volume followed by constant
pressure, the air-standardDualcycle aims to
mimic the pressure-volume variation of actual
internal combustion engines more closely than
achievable with the Otto and Diesel cycles.

Air-Standard Dual Cycle

The air-standard Dual cycle consists of five internally
reversible processes in series:
Process 1-2: isentropic compression.
Process 2-3: constant-volume heat addition to the air
from and external source.
Process 3-4: constant-pressure heat addition to the air
from an external source.
Process 4-5: isentropic expansion.
Process 5-1: constant-volume heat transfer from the air.
As for the Diesel
cycle, the Dual cycle
has a two-step
powerstroke:
process 3-4 followed
by process 4-5.

Air-Standard Dual Cycle

Using closed system energy balances for each of
the processes, the following expression for thermal
efficiency for the air-standard Dual Cycle can be
developed:
(Eq. 9.14)

Note: As for the Diesel cycle, enthalpy appears only for

notational convenience and does not signal use of control
volume concepts.

Like the Otto and Diesel cycles, thermal efficiency

increases with increasing compression ratio.

Air-Standard Dual Cycle

The specific internal energies and temperatures at
each principal state are determined using methods
similar to those used for the Otto and Diesel Cycles.
Areas on the T-s and p-v diagrams of the Dual
cycle can be interpreted as heat and work,
respectively, as in the cases of the Otto and Diesel
cycles.

DUAL CYCLE EXAMPLE

The compression ratio of an ideal dual cycle is 14. Air is at 80 kPa and 253 K
at the beginning of the compression process. The pressure ratio for the
constant volume process is 1.5 and the cut-off ratio is 1.2. Assuming constant
specific heats for air, determine the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

qin
2

4
qout
1

v
v

The properties of air at room temperature are cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK, cv =

0.718 kJ/kgK, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK, and k = 1.4 (Table A-2).

18

RT1 (0.287 kPa m 3 /kg K )(253 K)

v1

0.9076 m 3 /kg
P1
80 kPa

v1 0.9076 m 3 /kg
v2

0.06483 m 3 /kg
r
14
v1
v2

P2 P1

qin
2

P1 r k (80 kPa)14 1.4 3219 kPa

qout
1

Px P3 r p P2 (1.5)(3219 kPa) 4829 kPa

v
T2 T1 1
v2

k 1

P3
P2

T x T2

v
v

T1 r k 1 (253 K)14 1.4 1 727.1 K

4829 kPa
(727.1 K)
1091 K
3219
kPa

v 3 rcv x rcv 2 (1.2)(0.06483 m 3 /kg ) 0.07780 m 3 /kg

v3
vx

T3 T x

v
T4 T3 3
v4

0.07780
(1091 K)
1309 K

0.06483

k 1

0.07780
(1309 K)

0.9076

1.4 1

490.0 K

19

qin
2

4
qout
1

v
v

q in cv (T x T2 ) c p (T3 T x )
(0.718 kJ/kg K )(1091 727.1)K (1.005 kJ/kg K )(1309 1091)K
480.4 kJ/kg

q out cv (T4 T1 ) (0.718 kJ/kg K )(490.0 253)K 170.2 kJ/kg

th 1

q out
170.2 kJ/kg
1
0.646
q in
480.4 kJ/kg

20

Criteria of Performance

Indicated power (IP)

Brake power (bp)
Friction power (fp) and mechanical efficiency, m
Brake mean effective pressure (bmep), thermal
efficiency and fuel consumption
Volumetric efficiency, v

2
1

Indicated Power
Defined as the rate of work done by the gas on the
piston as evaluated from an indicator diagram obtained
from the engine using the electronic engine indicator.
ip = work done per cycle cycle per minute
For four-stroke engine,

pi LANn
IP
2
And for two-stroke engine,

n is the number of cylinders.

IP pi LANn
2
2

Indicated Power
Indicated mean effective pressure, pi given by:,

net area of diagram

pi
constant
length of diagram

work done per cycle

pi
displacement volume

For one engine cylinder

Work done per cycle = pi A
L
Where A = area of piston
L = length of stroke
Power output = (work done per cycle) x (cycle per
minute)
ip P AL cycle per unit time
i

For four-stoke engines, the number of cycles per unit time

is N/2 and for two-stroke engines the number of cycles per
unit time is N, where N is the engine speed.

2
3

Brake Power
Brake power is a way to measure the engine power output.

The engine is connected to a brake (or dynamometer) which

can be loaded so that the torque exerted by the engine can
be measured.

The torque is obtained by reading off a net load, w at known

radius, r.

Wr
2
4

Therefore

bp 2N

Brake power is also can be expressed as

m pi LANn Pb LANn
bp m IP

2
2

Then the brake mean effective pressure (Pb) is

Pb m Pi
2
5

Friction Power

The difference between the Ip and bp is the friction power

(fp). It is the power that overcome the frictional resistance
of the engine parts.

fp IP bp
2
6

Mechanical Efficiency

Power input to the shaft is usually bigger than the

indicated power due to frictional losses or the
mechanical efficiency.

mech

brake power

indicated power

2
7

Brake Mean Effective Pressure

From the definition of Brake power

Since

pi LANn
IP
2

BP m IP

for 4 stroke engine

and

m pi LANn Pb LANn
bp

2
2

Since m and Pi are difficult to obtain, they may be combined and

replaced by a brake mean effective pressure, Pb

Pb LANn
2NT
2

Equating this equation to another definition of bp:

So:

Its observed that bmep is proportional to torque.

4
Pb
T
LAn

2
8

Brake Thermal Efficiency

The power output of the engine is obtained from the chemical energy of
the fuel supplied. The overall engine efficiency is given by the brake
thermal efficiency,

bp

bp
bp
brake power
brake power

power given fuel equivalent power Pfe m f Qnet ,v

mf = mass flow fuel , Qnet,v = net calarofic value of the fuel.

2
9

Specific Fuel Consumption

sfc is the mass flow rate of fuel consumed per unit power
output and is a criterion of economical power production.

sfc

m f
bp

3
0

Volumetric Efficiency

The parameter used to measure the effectiveness of an

engines induction process is the volumetric efficiency.
Volumetric efficiency is only used with four-stroke cycle
engine, which have a distinct induction process.

V
V
Vs

3
1

Example 5.4
An engine operating at 2400 rpm consumes 12 ml of fuel (s.g. 0.85) in
60 second. The engine indicates a load of 30 N on the pony brake
system and the brakes torque arm is 20 cm. Determine (a) the brake
power, (b) the mass flow rate of fuel, and (c) the specific fuel
consumption.
Solution:

3
2

Example 5.4
A four-cylinder petrol engine has a bore of 57 mm and a stroke of 90
mm. Its rated speed is 2800 rpm and it is tested at this speed against a
brake which has a torque arm of 0.356 m. The net brake load is 155 N
and the fuel consumption is 6.741 l/h. The specific gravity of the petrol
used is 0.735 and it has a net calorific value of 44,200 kJ/kg. The
engine is tested in an atmospheric condition at 101.325 kPa and 15 oC
at air-fuel ratio of 14.5/1. Calculate for this speed, the engine torque,
the bmep, the brake thermal efficiency, the specific fuel consumption
and the volumetric efficiency of the engine.

3
3

Real Case

pi LANn
IP
2

bp 2N

3
4

Brayton Cycle
The Brayton cycle is the air-standard ideal cycle approximation for the gas-turbine
engine. This cycle differs from the Otto and Diesel cycles in that the processes
making the cycle occur in open systems or control volumes. Therefore, an open
system, steady-flow analysis is used to determine the heat transfer and work for the
cycle.
Search the web for information on new gas turbine technologies. One site that gives
a link to the GE 7FA group of gas turbines that operate on natural gas is
http://www.webshots.com/explains/sports/gas-turbine.html
A second link gives an overview of the applications of gas turbines.
http://www.energysolutionscenter.org/DistGen/Tutorial/CombTurbine.htm#Heat_Reco
very
Brayton Cycle Analysis
We assume the working fluid is air and the specific heats are constant and will
consider the cold-air-standard cycle.
35

The closed cycle gas-turbine engine

36

Shown here are the compressor and turbine stages of an

industrial gas turbine under repair. The compressor has
eighteen stages of compression and the turbine has three stage
of expansion.
Compressor
Turbine

37

Photo courtesy of Progress Energy Carolinas, Inc.

The T-s and P-v diagrams for the

Closed Brayton Cycle
Process
Description
1-2
Isentropic compression (in a
compressor)
2-3
Constant pressure heat addition
3-4
Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1
Constant pressure heat rejection

38

Thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle

th , Brayton

Wnet
Qout

1
Qin
Qin

Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply the conservation of energy to process 2-3 for P = constant (no work), steadyflow, and neglect changes in kinetic and potential energies.

E in E out
m 2 h2 Q in m 3h3
The conservation of mass gives

m in m out
m 2 m 3 m
For constant specific heats, the heat added per unit mass flow is

Q in m (h3 h2 )
p (T3 T2 )
Q in mC
Q in
qin
C p (T3 T2 )
m

39

The conservation of energy for process 4-1 yields for constant specific heats (lets
take a minute for you to get the following result)

Q out m (h4 h1 )
p (T4 T1 )
Q out mC
qout

Q out

C p (T4 T1 )

The thermal efficiency becomes

th , Brayton

th , Brayton

Q out
q
1
1 out
Q in
qin
C p ( T4 T1 )
1
C p (T3 T2 )

(T4 T1 )
1
(T3 T2 )
T1 (T4 / T1 1)
1
T2 (T3 / T2 1)
40

Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that

T2 T3

T1 T4

or

T4 T3

T1 T2

The Brayton cycle efficiency becomes

th , Brayton 1

T1
T2

Is this the same as the Carnot cycle efficiency?

Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

41

where the pressure ratio is rp = P2/P1 and

th , Brayton 1

1
rp

( k 1)/ k

Extra Assignment
Evaluate the Brayton cycle efficiency by determining the net work directly from the
turbine work and the compressor work. Compare your result with the above
expression. Note that this approach does not require the closed cycle assumption.

42

Example 9-2
The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle operates with air entering the compressor at 95
kPa, 22oC. The pressure ratio rp is 6:1 and the air leaves the heat addition process at
1100 K. Determine the compressor work and the turbine work per unit mass flow, the
cycle efficiency, the back work ratio, and compare the compressor exit temperature to
the turbine exit temperature. Assume constant properties.
Apply the conservation of energy for steady-flow and neglect changes in kinetic and
potential energies to process 1-2 for the compressor. Note that the compressor is
isentropic.

E in E out
m 1h1 W comp m 2 h2

The conservation of mass gives

m in m out
m 1 m 2 m

43

For constant specific heats, the compressor work per unit mass flow is

W comp m (h2 h1 )
p (T2 T1 )
W comp mC
wcomp

W comp
m

C p (T2 T1 )

Since the compressor is isentropic

44

wcomp C p (T2 T1 )
kJ
1005
.
(492.5 295) K
kg K
kJ
19815
.
kg
The conservation of energy for the turbine, process 3-4, yields for constant specific
heats (lets take a minute for you to get the following result)

W turb m (h3 h4 )
p (T3 T4 )
W turb mC
wturb
Since process 3-4 is isentropic

W turb

C p (T3 T4 )
m

45

Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that

T4 1

T3 rp

( k 1) / k

1
T4 T3
r
p
wturb

( k 1) / k

(1.4 1) /1.4

1
1100 K
659.1 K
6
kJ
C p (T3 T4 ) 1005
.
(1100 659.1) K
kg K
kJ
442.5
kg

We have already shown the heat supplied to the cycle per unit mass flow in process
2-3 is
m 2 m 3 m

m 2 h2 Q in m 3h3
Q in
qin
h3 h2
m
C p (T3 T2 ) 1005
.
609.6

kJ
kg

kJ
(1100 492.5) K
kg K
46

The net work done by the cycle is

wnet wturb wcomp

kJ
(442.5 19815
. )
kg
kJ
244.3
kg

The cycle efficiency becomes

th , Brayton

wnet
qin

kJ
244.3
kg

0.40 or
kJ
609.6
kg

40%

47

The back work ratio is defined as

wcomp
win
BWR

wout
wturb
kJ
19815
.
kg

0.448
kJ
442.5
kg
Note that T4 = 659.1 K > T2 = 492.5 K, or the turbine outlet temperature is greater
than the compressor exit temperature. Can this result be used to improve the cycle
efficiency?
What happens to th, win /wout, and wnet as the pressure ratio rp is increased? Consider
the T-s diagram for the cycle and note that the area enclosed by the cycle is the net
heat added to the cycle. By the first law applied to the cycle, the net heat added to
the cycle is equal to the net work done by the cycle. Thus, the area enclosed by the
cycle on the T-s diagram also represents the net work done by the cycle.
48

Let's take a closer look at the effect of the pressure ratio on the net work done.

wnet wturb wcomp

C p (T3 T4 ) C p (T2 T1 )
C p T3 (1 T4 / T3 ) C p T1 (T2 / T1 1)
C p T3 (1

rp

( k 1)/ k
)

C
T
(
r
1)
p 1 p
( k 1)/ k

49

Note that the net work is zero when

rp 1 and

T3
rp
T1

k /( k 1)

For fixed T3 and T1, the pressure ratio that makes the work a maximum is obtained
from:

dwnet
0
drp

This is easier to do if we let X = rp(k-1)/k

1
wnet C p T3 (1 ) C p T1 ( X 1)
X
dwnet
C p T3[0 ( 1) X 2 ] C p T1[1 0] 0
dX
Solving for X

50

Then, the rp that makes the work a maximum for the constant property case and fixed
T3 and T1 is

For the ideal Brayton cycle, show that the following results are true.
When rp = rp, max work, T4 = T2
When rp < rp, max work, T4 > T2
When rp > rp, max work, T4 < T2
The following is a plot of net work per unit mass and the efficiency for the above
example as a function of the pressure ratio.
280

0.60

260

0.55

240

0.50

wnet kJ /kg

0.40

200

T1 =22C

180

P1 =95 kPa

160

T3 =1100 K
t =c =100%

140
120
0

0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20

rp,max
2

10 12
Pratio

th,Brayton

0.45

220

14

16

18

20

0.15
22

51

Regenerative Brayton Cycle

For the Brayton cycle, the turbine exhaust temperature is greater than the
compressor exit temperature. Therefore, a heat exchanger can be placed between
the hot gases leaving the turbine and the cooler gases leaving the compressor. This
heat exchanger is called a regenerator or recuperator. The sketch of the regenerative
Brayton cycle is shown below.

52

We define the regenerator effectiveness regen as the ratio of the heat transferred to
the compressor gases in the regenerator to the maximum possible heat transfer to
the compressor gases.

qregen , act h5 h2

qregen , max h5' h2 h4 h2

regen

qregen , act
qregen , max

h5 h2

h4 h2
53

For ideal gases using the cold-air-standard assumption with constant specific heats,
the regenerator effectiveness becomes

regen

T5 T2
T4 T2

Using the closed cycle analysis and treating the heat addition and heat rejection as
steady-flow processes, the regenerative cycle thermal efficiency is

th , regen

qout
1
qin
1

h6 h1
h3 h5

Notice that the heat transfer occurring within the regenerator is not included in the
efficiency calculation because this energy is not heat transferred across the cycle
boundary.
Assuming an ideal regenerator regen = 1 and constant specific heats, the thermal
efficiency becomes (take the time to show this on your own)

54

When does the efficiency of the air-standard Brayton cycle equal the efficiency of the
air-standard regenerative Brayton cycle? If we set th,Brayton = th,regen then

Recall that this is the pressure ratio that maximizes the net work for the simple
Brayton cycle and makes T4 = T2. What happens if the regenerative Brayton cycle
operates at a pressure ratio larger than this value?
55

For fixed T3 and T1, pressure ratios greater than this value cause T4 to be less than
T2, and the regenerator is not effective.
What happens to the net work when a regenerator is added?
What happens to the heat supplied when a regenerator is added?
The following shows a plot of the regenerative Brayton cycle efficiency as a function
of the pressure ratio and minimum to maximum temperature ratio, T1/T3.

56

Example 9-3: Regenerative Brayton Cycle

Air enters the compressor of a regenerative gas-turbine engine at 100 kPa and 300 K
and is compressed to 800 kPa. The regenerator has an effectiveness of 65 percent,
and the air enters the turbine at 1200 K. For a compressor efficiency of 75 percent
and a turbine efficiency of 86 percent, determine
(a) The heat transfer in the regenerator.
(b) The back work ratio.
(c) The cycle thermal efficiency.
Compare the results for the above cycle with the ones listed below that have the
same common data as required. The actual cycles are those for which the turbine
and compressor isentropic efficiencies are less than one.
(a) The actual cycle with no regeneration, = 0.
(b) The actual cycle with ideal regeneration, = 1.0.
(c) The ideal cycle with regeneration, = 0.65.
(d) The ideal cycle with no regeneration, = 0.
(e) The ideal cycle with ideal regeneration, = 1.0.
We assume air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, that is, we use the coldair-standard assumption.
57

The cycle schematic is the same as above and the T-s diagram showing the effects of
compressor and turbine efficiencies is below.

T-s Diagram for Gas Turbine with Regeneration

800 kPa

100 kPa

4a

2a
2s

4s

58

Summary of Results
Cycle type

Actual

Actual

Actual

Ideal

Ideal

Ideal

regen

0.00

0.65

1.00

0.00

0.65

1.00

comp

0.75

0.75

0.75

1.00

1.00

1.00

turb

0.86

0.86

0.86

1.00

1.00

1.00

qin kJ/kg

578.3

504.4

464.6

659.9

582.2

540.2

wcomp kJ/kg

326.2

326.2

326.2

244.6

244.6

244.6

wturb kJ/kg

464.6

464.6

464.6

540.2

540.2

540.2

wcomp/wturb

0.70

0.70

0.70

0.453

0.453

0.453

th

24.0%

27.5%

29.8%

44.8%

50.8%

54.7%

59

Compressor analysis
The isentropic temperature at compressor exit is

T2 s P2

T1 P1

( k 1) / k

P2

P
1

( k 1) / k

T2 s T1

300 K (

800kPa (1.41) /1.4

)
543.4 K
100kPa

To find the actual temperature at compressor exit, T2a, we apply the compressor
efficiency

comp

wisen , comp
wact , comp

T2 a T1

h2 s h1 T2 s T1

h2 a h1 T2 a T1

comp

300 K

(T2 s T1 )

1
(543.4 300) K
0.75

624.6 K
60

Since the compressor is adiabatic and has steady-flow

wcomp h2 a h1 C p (T2 a T1 )
kJ
kJ
1.005
(624.6 300) K 326.2
kg K
kg
Turbine analysis
The conservation of energy for the turbine, process 3-4, yields for constant specific
heats (lets take a minute for you to get the following result)

W turb m (h3 h4 a )
p (T3 T4 a )
W turb mC
wturb

W turb

C p (T3 T4 a )
m

61

Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we can find the isentropic temperature at the turbine exit.

T4 s P4

T3 P3

( k 1) / k

P4
T4 s T3
P3

( k 1) / k

100kPa (1.41) /1.4

1200 K (
)
662.5 K
800kPa

To find the actual temperature at turbine exit, T4a, we apply the turbine efficiency.

turb

wact , turb
wisen , turb

h3 h4 a T3 T4 a

h3 h4 s T3 T4 s

T4 a T3 turb (T3 T4 s )
1200 K 0.86(1200 662.5) K
737.7 K T2 a
62

The turbine work becomes

wturb h3 h4 a C p (T3 T4 a )
kJ
(1200 737.7) K
kg K
kJ
464.6
kg
1005
.

The back work ratio is defined as

wcomp
win
BWR

wout
wturb
kJ
326.2
kg

0.70
kJ
464.6
kg

63

Regenerator analysis
To find T5, we apply the regenerator effectiveness.

T5 T2 a
regen
T4 a T2 a
T5 T2 a regen (T4 a T2 a )
624.6 K 0.65(737.7 624.6) K
6981
.K

64

To find the heat transferred from the turbine exhaust gas to the compressor exit gas,
apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the compressor gas side of the
regenerator.

m 2 a h2 a Q regen m 5h5
m 2 a m 5 m
Q regen
qregen
h5 h2 a
m
C p (T5 T2 a )
kJ
(6981
. 624.6) K
kg K
kJ
73.9
kg
1005
.

65

Using qregen, we can determine the turbine exhaust gas temperature at the regenerator
exit.

m&4 a h4 a Q&regen m&6 h6

m&4 a m&6 m&

Q&regen
qregen
h4 a h6 C p (T4 a T6 )
m&
T6 T4 a

qregen
Cp

kJ
kg
737.7 K
kJ
1.005
kg K
73.9

664.2 K

66

Heat supplied to cycle

Apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the heat exchanger for process 5-3.
We obtain a result similar to that for the simple Brayton cycle.

qin h3 h5 C p (T3 T5 )
kJ
(1200 6981
. )K
kg K
kJ
504.4
kg
1005
.

Cycle thermal efficiency

The net work done by the cycle is

wnet wturb wcomp

kJ
kJ
(464.6 326.2)
138.4
kg
kg
67

The cycle efficiency becomes

th , Brayton

wnet

qin
kJ
138.4
kg

0.274 or
kJ
504.4
kg

27.4%

You are encouraged to complete the calculations for the other values found in the
summary table.

68

Other Ways to Improve Brayton Cycle Performance

Intercooling and reheating are two important ways to improve the performance of the
Brayton cycle with regeneration.

69

The T-s diagram for this cycle is shown below. Sketch the P-v diagram.

70

One stage of a two-stage, intercooled refrigerant compressor in a

chilled water refrigeration system

71

Typical shell and tube heat exchanger used for the intercooler,
evaporator, and condenser for a chilled water refrigeration system.

72

Forced draft cooling tower for cooling water used in the intercooler and
condenser heat exchangers of the chilled water refrigeration system

73

Another application of intercooling to reduce compressor work is

shown here as a two-stage, 7.5 hp air compressor with intercooling.
First stage
piston with
second
stage
piston in
back
Intercooling
heat
exchanger
Drive wheel
spokes
function as
fan blades
74

Intercooling
When using multistage compression, cooling the working fluid between the stages will
reduce the amount of compressor work required. The compressor work is reduced
because cooling the working fluid reduces the average specific volume of the fluid
and thus reduces the amount of work on the fluid to achieve the given pressure rise.
To determine the intermediate pressure at which intercooling should take place to
minimize the compressor work, we follow the approach shown in Chapter 7.
For the adiabatic, steady-flow compression process, the work input to the compressor
per unit mass is
4

wcomp = v dP = v dP v dP v dP
1

75

For the isentropic compression process

wcomp =

k
k
( P2v2 Pv
( P4 v4 P3v3 )
1 1)
k -1
k -1
k
kR
R(T2 T1 )
(T4 T3 )
k -1
k -1
k
R T1 (T2 / T1 1) T3 (T4 / T3 1)
k -1
( k 1) / k

k
P2
R T1
1 T3 4

P3
k -1 P1

( k 1) / k

Notice that the fraction kR/(k-1) = Cp.

Can you obtain this relation another way? Hint: apply the first law to processes 1-4.

76

For two-stage compression, lets assume that intercooling takes place at constant
pressure and the gases can be cooled to the inlet temperature for the compressor,
such that P3 = P2 and T3 = T1.
The total work supplied to the compressor becomes

To find the unknown pressure P2 that gives the minimum work input for fixed
compressor inlet conditions T1, P1, and exit pressure P4, we set

dwcomp ( P2 )
dP2

77

This yields

P2 P1 P4
or, the pressure ratios across the two compressors are equal.

P2 P4 P4

P1 P2 P3
Intercooling is almost always used with regeneration. During intercooling the
compressor final exit temperature is reduced; therefore, more energy must be
supplied in the heat addition process to achieve the maximum temperature of the
cycle. Regeneration can make up part of the required heat transfer.
To supply only compressed air, using intercooling requires less work input. The next
time you go to a home supply store where air compressors are sold, check the larger
air compressors to see if intercooling is used. For the larger air compressors, the
compressors are made of two piston-cylinder chambers. The intercooling heat
exchanger is often a pipe with a attached fins that connects the large piston-cylinder
chamber with the smaller piston-cylinder chamber. Often the fly wheel used to drive
the compressor has spokes shaped like fan blades that are used to increase air flow
across the compressor and heat exchanger pipe to improve the intercooling effect.
78

Extra Assignment
Obtain the expression for the compressor total work by applying conservation of
energy directly to the low- and high-pressure compressors.
Reheating
When using multistage expansion through two or more turbines, reheating
between stages will increase the net work done (it also increases the
required heat input). The regenerative Brayton cycle with reheating was shown
above.
The optimum intermediate pressure for reheating is the one that maximizes the
turbine work. Following the development given above for intercooling and assuming
reheating to the high-pressure turbine inlet temperature in a constant pressure
steady-flow process, we can show the optimum reheat pressure to be

P7 P6 P9
or the pressure ratios across the two turbines are equal.

P6 P7 P8

P7 P9 P9

79