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The inner junction capacitances are

shown in Fig. They are not physically


connected but inherently present with
the device.
1

The capacitor Cbc


between the base and the collector
connects the output with the input. Because
of this, negative feedback takes place in the
circuit and the gain decreases. This

feedback effect is more, when


Cbc provides a path for higher
frequency ac currents
Xc =

1
2fC

The capacitance Cbe between base


and Emitter
offers a low input impedance at higher
frequency thus reduces the effective input
signal and so the gain falls.

The capacitance Cce between


collector and Emitter
Similarly, Cce provides a shunting effect at
high frequencies in the output side and
reduces gain of the amplifier.

Besides these junction capacitances there


are wiring capacitance CW1 & CW2.
These are relatively very small but at high
frequencies they become 5 to 20 p.f. For a
multistage amplifier, the effect of the
capacitances Cce, CW1 and CW2 can be
represented by single shunt capacitance.

CS = CW1 + CW2 +Cce.


5

At higher frequency, the capacitor CS


offers low input impedance and thus
reduces the output.

Bandwidth of
an amplifier (BW)
The gain is constant over a frequency
range. The frequencies at which

the gain reduces to 70.7% of the


maximum gain are known as cut
off frequencies, there are upper cut
off frequency and lower cut off frequency.
7

Fig. shows these two frequencies. The


difference of these two frequencies is called
Bandwidth (BW )of an amplifier.
Therefore

BW = f2 f1.

At f1 and f2, the gain voltage becomes


70.7% i.e. (Am / 2). The output voltage
reduces to (1 / 2 )of maximum output
voltage.
Since the power is proportional to
voltage square the output power at these
frequencies becomes half maximum
power.

The gain on dB scale is given by


10

20log10(V2 / V1)
= 20 log10(0.707)
= 10 log10 (1 / 2)2
= 10 log10(1/2)
= - 3dB.
If the difference in gain is more than 3 dB,
then it can be detected by human. If it is
less than 3 dB it cannot be detected.

11

Finding the two


Cutoff Frequencies

12

For a CE Amplifier
Zin = R1 || R2 || Zin(base)
The input coupling capacitor is in series
with RS and Zin
From the circuit theory at XC = R the current
reduces to 0.707 point where the R is total
13

I 2 = V2 / ( R 2 + Xc

At R = Xc
I2 = V2 / ( 2.R2 )

= 0.707 (V/R)
14

Therefore
(1/2fCin) = (RS + Zin)
Solving for frequency we get

fin = 1/(2(RS + Zin). Cin)


this is the cutoff frequency introduced by
input coupling capacitor
15

on the output side the capacitor Cout is


in series with the output impedance RC
and load resistance RL

Similarly the output ac current is down


to 0.707 point when

XC = R
16

Or
(1/2fCout) = (Rc + RL)
Solving for frequency we get

fout = 1/(2(Rc + RL). Cout)


this is the cutoff frequency introduced
by output coupling capacitor
17

The Bypass capacitor sees a


resistance of RE in parallel with the output
impedance of the emitter
Zout = re + (RS || R1 || R2)/
Applying the same
condition at
XC = R

18

We get
(1/2fCb) = (RE||Zout)
Solving for frequency we get

fE = 1/(2(RE||Zout). Cb)
this is the cutoff frequency introduced by
output bypass capacitor
19

The three capacitors produce


three
different
cut
off
frequencies
fin = 1/(2(RS + Zin). Cin)
fout = 1/(2(Rc + RL). Cout)
fE = 1/(2(RE||Zout). Cb)

20

Because that is the one where


the voltage gain first reduces
from the pass band values
Usually these three are different
While analyzing the amplifier
highest of the Lower Cut off
frequencies is chosen for lower
cut off

21

The ac of the transistor is ratio of ac


collector current and ac emitter
current

= iC / iE
at low frequency approaches unity
but
as frequency increases after a point
alpha start decreasing
22

Alpha cutoff
frequency f
defined as the frequency at
which alpha drops to 0.707
of its lower frequency value
f is one of the limitation in

23

Beta cut off


frequency f
is defined as the frequency at which
of the transistor is reduced to 0.707 of
its low frequency value

Current bandwidth

24

Further
f = f /

and

f = f / 1.2 approx
25

Is Limitation of CB Amplifier

f , f are Limitations of
CE Amplifier

26

h- Parameters

27

All the transistor amplifiers are two port


networks having two voltages and two
currents. The positive directions of voltages
and currents are shown in fig..

28

Out of four quantities two are independent


and two are dependent.
.

29

If the input current i 1 and output voltage v 2


are taken independent then
other two quantities i2 and v1 can be
expressed in terms of i1 and v2
.

30

v1 = f1 (i1,v 2 )
i2 = f2 (i1, v 2 )

31

The equations can be written as

v1 = h11 i1 + h12 v 2
i2 = h21 i1 + h22 v 2
where h11 , h12, h21 and h22 are called
h-parameters.

32

Defining

h 11

33

v1 = h11 i1 + h12 v 2
i2 = h21 i1 + h22 v 2

v1
h11 =
i1

v 2 =0

h 11 designated as h i & is

input impedance
output short circuit to ac.

with
34

Defining

h 12

35

v1 = h11 i1 + h12 v 2
i2 = h21 i1 + h22 v 2

h 12 designated as hr is fraction of output


voltage at input with input open circuited or

reverse voltage gain

with
input
open
(dimensionless)

circuited

to

ac

36

Defining

h 21

37

i2
h21 =
i1

v1 = h11 i1 + h12 v 2
i2 = h21 i1 + h22 v 2
v 2 =0

designated as hf
And is Negative of current gain with output
short circuited to ac.The current entering the
load is negative of I2. This is also known as

forward short circuit


current gain.
38

Defining

h 22

39

v1 = h11 i1 + h12 v 2
i2 = h21 i1 + h22 v 2

designated as ho & is

Output admittance
with input open circuited to ac

40

If these parameters are specified for a


particular configuration, then suffixes e, b or
c are also included corresponding to CE ,
CB and CC Configurations respectively
h ie ,h re ,hfe ,hoe .. CE
h ib ,h rb ,hfb ,hob
h ic ,h re ,hfc ,hoc

.. CB

CC
41

Reverting back to two equations


v1 = h11 i1 + h12 v 2
i2 = h21 i1 + h22 v 2

h 11

Using two equations


the generalized model
of the amplifier can be
drawn as shown in

h 12
h 21
h 22

h ie Input impedance
with a shorted
output
h re Reverse voltage
gain with a open
input
h fe Current gain with
a shorted output
42
h oe Output admittance

hybrid model for


a transistor amplifier

43

Let us consider CE
configuration as show in fig..
The variables iB, iC,vC & vB
represent total instantaneous
values
iB and vC can be taken as
independent variables and
vB, IC as dependent variables

44

Therefore
VB = f1(iB, Vc) & Ic = f2 (iB, Vc).

v1 = f1 (i1,v 2 )
i2 = f2 (i1, v 2 )

Using Taylors series expression, and


neglecting higher order terms we obtain
f1
f1
vB =
iB +
v C
iB v
v C i
C
B
f2
f2
ic =
iB +
v C
iB v
v C i
C
B
45

The partial derivatives are taken keeping


the collector voltage or base current
constant.
The VB, Vc, iB, ic represent the small
signal (incremental) base and collector
current and voltage and can be represented
as Vb ,ib, Vc ,ic.
46

f1
f1
v B =
iB +
v C
iB v
v C i
C
B

VB = f1(iB, Vc) & Ic = f2 (iB, Vc).

f2
f2
ic =
iB +
v C
iB v
v C i
C
B

47

The Hybrid model for CE configuration

48

Determination of h - parameters

49

To determine the four parameters input and


output characteristic are used.
Input characteristic depicts the
relationship of between input voltage
and input current with output voltage as
parameter.

50

The output characteristic depicts the


relationship between output voltage and
output current with input current as
parameter.
From the output characteristic shown.

51

hfe

iC2 - iC1
iC
=
=
iB V
ib2 - ib1
C

The current increments are taken around


the quiescent point Q which corresponds to
iB = IB and to the collector voltage VCE = VC
52

The value of hoe at the quiescent


operating point is given by the slope of
the output characteristic at the operating
point (i.e. slope of tangent AB)

hoe

iC
=
VC i
B
53

hie is the slope of the appropriate input Chs


on fig. at the operating point (slope of
tangent EF at Q).

VB
hie =
iB

VB

iB V
C

54

A vertical line on the input characteristic


represents constant base current. The
parameter h re can be obtained from the
ratio (VB2 VB1) and (VC2 VC1) for at Q.
VB
VB2 - VB1
VB
hre =

VC
VC I
VC2 - VC1
B

55

Typical CE h-parameters:
(Transistor 2N1573).
hie = 1000 ohm.
hre = 2.5 * 10 4
hfe = 50
hoe = 25 mA/V
56

Approximate relations
r parameter

h parameter

hfe

hfe /( hfe+1)

r e

hie /hfe

r c

hfe/ hoe

rb

hrb/ hob
57

Typical CE h-parameters:
(Transistor 2N1573).
hie = 1000 ohm.
hre = 2.5 * 10 4
hfe = 50
hoe = 25 mA/V
What is the value of , , re & rc

58

std
h11

h12

h21
h22

CE CC CB meaning
hie hic hib Input impedance
with a shorted
output
hre hrc hrb Reverse voltage
gain with a open
input
hfe hfc hfb Current gain with
a shorted output
hoe hoc hob Output
admittance with
59

Consider the CE amplifier as two-port


network. Rs is the source resistance and ZL
is the load impedance. h-parameters are
assumed to be constant over the operating
range. The ac equivalent circuit is shown

60

61

The quantities of interest are the


1.current gain,
2.input impedance,
3.voltage gain, and
4.output impedance

62

Current gain:
For the transistor amplifier stage,
Gain Ai is defined as the ratio of output
to input currents.

63

-IC
IL
Ai =
=
Ib
Ib
IC =

(IL + IC = 0.

IL = -IC )

hfeIb +

hoe Vc
= - IC ZL

Vc = IL ZL
IC = hfe Ib + hoe (-IC ZL )
or

IC
Ib

hfe
=
1+ hoe ZL

hfe
Ai = 1+ hoe ZL

64

65

Input Impedance:
The impedance looking into the
amplifier input terminals (1,1) is the input
impedance Zi

66

67

Voltage gain:
The ratio of output voltage to input voltage
gives the gain of the transistors
VC
IC ZL
Av =
=Vb
Vb
IB .A i .ZL A i ZL
Av =
=
Vb
Zi

68

Output Admittance:

69

70

Voltage amplification taking into account


source impedance (Rs) is given by

A VS

VC VC Vb
=
=
*
Vs Vb VS

V
s
Vb =
* Zi
Rs +Zi

Zi
= AV .
Zi +Rs
A i ZL
=
Zi +Rs

AV is the voltage gain for an ideal voltage


source (Rs = 0).
71

parameter Exact

AV
Ai

Approximate

h21.ZL/((h11.(1+h22.ZL)h12.h21.ZL)
h21/(1+ h22. ZL)

h21.ZL/h11
h21

Z in

h11 (h12.h21/(h22+1/ZL))

h11

Z out

(RS+h11)/(h22.( RS+h11)-

1/h22

h12.h21

Summary

72

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