Energy Conservation

Energy
Management

Role of an energy manager

Assess

Analyse

On technical improvements

Advertise

Energy requirements

Advise

Current energy demand

Energy audit

Ways to save energy

Account

For energy consumption

Assess energy demand

Keep records
Consumption
Time of readings
Temperature
Other factors affecting demand

Weekday/weekend
Special events

Frequency of readings

Weekly
Daily

Energy Audit

Feasibility study

Aim

Establish and quantify energy flows into and within a

building or organisation
Identify viable and cost effective energy saving
measures
Enhance operating efficiency and reduce
maintenance costs
Establish a baseline energy consumption

Process

Collect data from energy invoices and meters

Surveys of plant, equipment and buildings
Collect information from managers and other staff

Auditing process
Identify energy management
opportunities

Can be no cost or low cost measures

Change an energy tariff

Change an energy supplier
Reschedule production activities
Preferential tariffs

Adjust existing controls to match requirements

Implement good housekeeping policies
Invest in small capital items
Thermostats & time switches

Who does energy audits?

Can be undertaken internally energy manager

Specialist energy consultants
Energy service companies

Performance contracts
Guarantee organisations energy cost savings in
return for a fee
Main interest is in installing and managing their
recommended plant
May arrange finance of projects
Vested interest

Why is energy wasted?

Poorly designed buildings and

installations

Inadequate control systems

Poor control settings
Inefficient plant operation

Insufficient insulation
Undersized ventilation ducts

Out of date technology

Poor maintenance

Poor operating and working

practices

Different types of energy audit

According to level of detail and depth of

analysis
Preliminary
Targeted
Comprehensive

Preliminary audit

How much energy is being consumed

What type of energy
Performance of facility compared with
similar facilities
Characteristic performance of building

Preliminary energy audit

Identification of potential areas of energy

saving
Financial energy audits

Collect data

Establish quantity and cost of each form of

energy
Data from energy invoices and meters for
previous year

Analyse data
Present data
Establish priorities
Make recommendations

Targeted energy audit

Provide data and analysis on specific

targeted projects

e.g. heating of one building or lighting

Detailed survey of target area

Analysis of energy flows and costs
Recommendations for action

Comprehensive energy audits

Similar to preliminary audits but in far

more detail
Detailed data on energy flows into
and within organisation or facility

Often requires use of sub-metering to

accurately determine component energy
flows
Or estimate energy use
(Plant power output (kWh)/efficiency of plant)
*operating hours per year
Use of thermal imaging
May use complex energy simulation software

Detailed energy survey

Energy project implementation plans

Collect data

Build up picture of pattern of energy consumption and

cost from energy invoices

Collect geographic data

Location, altitude, orientation

Weather data, degree day data

Manufacturing data (if appropriate)

All invoices for relevant time period

Delivery notes for oil, solid fuel, LPG
Identify estimated meter readings check with previous years
Inadequate/unavailable invoices contact utility company/fuel
supplier

Production output

Check data for anomalies

Small building using more energy than larger one

High energy use at night when unoccupied

Understanding invoices: electricity

Date of meter reading

Monthly standing charge
Present and previous meter reading

Charges for each rate

For every kW of the peak power demand during the month

Penalise users make heavy demands during peak periods

Supply capacity annual maximum demand

Some tariffs have a higher unit charge for first 1000 kWh

Monthly maximum demand charge

Daytime peak rate

Night time off-peak rate

Monthly charge

Total cost + VAT

Gas invoices

Much less complicated than electricity

Date of meter reading or estimate
Calorific value of gas
Present and previous meter readings
Amount of gas used

Unit price per kWh

Standing charge

ft3, kWh or therms

Monthly or quarterly

Total cost + VAT

Other fuels

Fuel oil

Measured by volume

Varies with temperature corrected to standard condition of

15.50C

Date of delivery
Unit cost per standard litre
Calorific value (?)
Total cost + VAT

Solid fuel

Weight delivered
Date of delivery
Total cost + VAT
No calorific value

Analysing energy records

Key variables
Heating

External temperature - dominant

Wind speed )
Humidity
) <=10% variation
Solar gain )

Lighting

Hours of darkness

Data analysis
Many different ways of analysing data
Annual energy consumption
Analysis of heating requirements

Degree day method

Mean temperature method
Cumulative deviation method
(Details in Keiths lecture notes)

Normalised performance indicators (NPI)

(Beggs, 2002)

Time dependent energy analysis

Linear regression analysis
CUSUM cumulative sum deviation method

Annual energy consumption

Simplest analysis

Assess overall energy performance of building

Produces a percentage breakdown of annual energy

consumption and cost data

Convert all energy consumption data into standard units (kWh)

Standard conversion factors & gross calorific values

Percentage breakdowns of total consumption and cost of each

energy type
Present data

Total annual energy consumption

Cost
Percentage breakdown of each fuel type
Historical trends

Analysis of heating requirements

Degree day method

Quicker
Oil & coal heating difficult general estimates
of consumption

Mean temperature method

More accurate
Plot mean consumption against mean
external temperature

Degree day method

Two component parts

Temperature related
Independent of temperature
Hot water & cooking if by gas

E = W + H*degree days*86400
Where E is total energy consumed
W energy for hot water + cooking (gas)

W approx constant for given house 7-10 GJ/quarter

H is heat loss rate for the home

Two unknowns W & H,

Know degree days & energy consumption
Estimate heat loss & steady energy requirement

Degree day method - example

Energy consumption 2 successive quarters

31.76 & 18.80 GJ

Corresponding degree days

1100 and 500

E = W + H * degree days*86400
1100 * H * 86400 + W = 31.76 (1)
500 * H * 86400 + W = 18.80 (2)
Simultaneous equations (subtract 2 from 1)
H = (31.76 18.80) * 109 = 250 Watts
(1100-500)*86400
Substitute for H in either equation to get W
W = 31.76 * 109 - 1100 * 250 * 86400
= 8 * 109 = 8GJ

H - heat loss
W - hot water

Degree day method

Once H & W have been calculated
Performance for subsequent quarters can
be estimated
If degree days for 3rd quarter = 400

Consumption predicted to be
400 * 250 * 86400 + 8 * 109 = 16.64 GJ

If actual consumption is 17.5 GJ then

energy has been wasted

Mean temperature method

(non electrical heating)

Plot the mean consumption over a specific period

against mean external temperature

For 1 week or 1 day - less time than previous method

Analysis of lighting
(non-electrically heated house)

Lighting varies throughout

the year with hours of
darkness

Need to assess a realistic

time for lighting

There is constant load (A)

from appliances and
refrigeration use and an
increasing amount from
lighting.
Increase in lighting hours
is used to obtain L & A in
same way for H & W in
heating example

Analysis of heating & lighting in an

electrically heated house

More complex as both H & L are unknown

Combine A & W to give overall appliance + hot water
load (A)
E = (degree days * H + lighting hours * L) * 86400 + A

3 unknowns H, L & A

Where E = energy consumption

H = heat loss rate
L = lighting (units of L are Watts per hour)
A = appliance + hot water
If we have data for 3 quarters
Estimate values for H, L & A by solving 3 simultaneous equations

If appliance load is known calculation is easier

Cumulative deviation method

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.

No energy conservation
horizontal line
Winter following
improved insulation
Summer no savings
heat conservation only
Winter parallel to 2
Summer - improved
management of hot
water
Should be (4) + (5) but
less - energy
conservation
performance is reduced

Normalised Performance Indicators (NPIs)

Provides an indication of the energy performance of a building

Compares actual annual energy consumption and costs with those
achieved by buildings of a similar type and function
Problems

Correct the building energy consumption data

allow for variables such as occupancy and weather.

NPIs developed to address these problems. Used to

Buildings may be different sizes

Locations may have different climates
Locations may have different levels of exposure
Maybe different operating hours

compare with other buildings of a similar type and function

compare with standard energy benchmark for different building types

Benchmarks

Many countries have national energy benchmarks for different types of

buildings
Usually kWh/m2 of floor area (volume)
Provide guidance, not absolute values to achieve

How to calculate NPIs

Establish total building energy use in standard units

Calculate the annual energy use for space heating

Sub-metering, or analytical techniques

Correct space heating energy data for climate & exposure

Weather coefficient = std annual heating degree days/ annual heating

degree days experienced by building
Exposure coefficients

Non-heating energy consumption + corrected space heating = nontime corrected energy consumption
To calculate normalised annual energy consumption need to correct
for hours of use

Sheltered (city centre) = 1.1

Normal (urban/rural) = 1.0
Exposed (coastal/hilly site) = 0.9

non-time corrected energy consumption * coefficient

Hours of use coefficient = std annual hours of use/actual annual hours
of use

NPI = normalised annual energy consumption/building floor area

Energy Surveys

Integral part of energy audit

Helps to understand energy flows within a
facility/building
Helps to identify energy wastage
Can be comprehensive or targeted
Objectives

Determine energy performance of facility/building or specific

plant/equipment
Identify and quantify the principal energy flows & energy cost
savings
Produce costed recommendations to achieve energy cost
savings
Make recommendations on future energy management of
facility

What to include in an energy survey

Management and operation

characteristics of a facility or organisation

Energy supply to an organisations various
facilities
Energy use within an organisations
facilities
The plant and equipment within a facility
The fabric of the organisations buildings

Management and operating characteristics

Management culture

Can have considerable influence on energy

consumption
Determine management structure and
practices relating to energy procurement
and consumption
Identify cost centres
Are the managers accountable for operating
costs also responsible for energy consumption?

Maintenance procedures
Frequency and quality
Identify new maintenance measures to improve
energy efficiency

Operating practices: data collection

Use of particular space or building

Mechanical/electrical services in building
Number & type of occupants e.g. stationary or
active
Occupancy patterns
Environmental conditions

Air temp, humidity, lighting

Operating practices of plant/equipment

Identify where actual practices deviate from that
stated by management

Overheated rooms, open windows, computers left on

Energy Supply

Identify tariffs and supply contracts of organisation

Ensure organisation is using correct electricity tariff
to suite its load profile
Calculate load profile

Regular meter readings include daytime, night time &

weekends
For large electrical loads
Need to be more accurate
Measure every 30 mins, use portable meters if necessary

Investigate large peaks in load

Plant and equipment

Survey major items of plant and equipment to determine their

operating efficiency

Boilers

Check efficiency
Opening practices
Is heat recovery feasible

Pipework

tune to minimise flue gas heat loss

Identify if flue gas heat recovery is feasible

Refrigeration

Include pipe distribution networks

Insulation & leaks

Planned replacement of old plant

Building fabric

Identify using U values areas of greatest heat loss

Thermal imaging
Excess ventilation open doors

Energy management: recommendations

Recommendations will relate to cost of fuel more interested in

saving money than energy/carbon
Technical

Energy management

Checking performance
Record keeping

Financial

Insulation, draft exclusion, thermostatic radiator valves, heating control

Low energy lighting, efficient refrigeration
Power factor corrections
Relocation of switches, movement sensors

Make sub-sections responsible for their own energy budget

Carrots for those who save energy

Other factors

Change patterns of working

Working practices
Use of space