Chapter 1

Vector Analysis
Hongyan Tang

Contents
1.1 Vector algebra
1.2 Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
1.3 Gradient of a Scalar Field
1.4 Divergence of a Vector Field
1.5 Curl of a Vector Field
1.6 Solenoidal and irrotational fields
1.7 Laplacian Operations
1.8 Helmholtzs Theorem

1.1 Vector algebra

1. Scalars and Vectors
Scalar A quantity has only magnitude
(Length, area, volume, temperature, density,
energy).
Vector A quantity has both magnitude and
direction (Force, displacement, velocity, acceleration,
electric field intensity, magnetic field intensity).
Fields The distribution of a quantity in space will
constitute a field. Hence, there are scalar fields and
vector fields.

1. Scalars and Vectors

Graphical representation of Vector A segment of a
directed straight-line.


A eA A eA A
Algebraic

A
representation

A A
Magnitude
of Vector
Unit Vector

eA
A

Vector A

Constant Vector with constant magnitude and fixed direction.

Notice Unit Vector = Constant Vector ?

Vector in Cartesian
Coordinates

Ax A cos
Ay A cos

Az

Ax O
x

A ex Ax e y Ay ez Az

Az A cos
Ay
y

A A(ex cos e y cos ez cos )

e A ex cos e y cos ez cos

2. Algebraic operation of vectors

1 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

A B ex ( Ax Bx ) e y ( Ay B y ) ez ( Az Bz )

A B

r
r
r
r
Commutative A
B B A
law
r
r r
r
r r
AssociativeA
( B C ) ( A B) C
law

Addition

A B

Subtraction

 2 Vector multiplied by scalar

kA ex kAx e y kAy ez kAz

3 Scalar product (dot product)

A

A B AB cos Ax Bx Ay B y Az Bz

AngleA B

A B B A Commutative law




A B 0
A // B
A B AB
AB

ex e y e y ez ez ex 0


ex ex e y e y ez ez 1

 4 Vector product (cross product)

A B en AB sin
In components:

A B ex ( Ay Bz Az B y ) e y ( Az Bx Ax Bz ) ez ( Ax B y Ay Bx )
In matrix:

ex

A B Ax

ey

ez

Ay

Az

Bx

By

Bz

A B B A

If A // B ,then A B 0

A B

AB sin

XB

 5 Vector Operations

( A B) C A C B C

Distributive law

( A B) C A C B C

Distributive law

A ( B C ) B (C A) C ( A B )

Scalar
triple
product

A ( B C ) ( A C ) B ( A B)C

Vector
triple product

1.2 Orthogonal Coordinate Systems

z

1. Cartesian Coordinates

Variable

ez

x, y , z

Unit vector

ex , e y , ez

Position

r ex x e y y ez z

Line element

dl ex dx e y dy ez dz

Surface
element

z z0
plane

ex

y
y y0 plane

x x0 plane

dS x ex dl y dlz ex dydz

dS y e y dl x dl z e y dxdz

dV dxdydz

P(x0,y0,z0)

dz

dS z ez dlx dl y ez dxdy
Volume
element

ey

o
x

dS z ez dxdy

dS y e y dxdz

dx

d y dS x ex dydz

2. Cylindrical Coordinates

Variable

, , z

Unit vector

e , e , ez

r e e z z
Position

Line element dl e d e d ez dz

dS e dl dl z e ddz
Surface

dS e dl dl z e ddz
element

dS z ez dl dl ez dd

Volume
element

dV dddz

3. Spherical Coordinates
Variable
Unit vector

r , ,

er , e , e

Position
r er r

Line element dl er dr e rd e rsind

2
dS r er dl dl er r sindd
Surface

element
dS e dlr dl ez rsindrd

dS e dlr dl e rdrd

Volume
element

dV r 2sindrdd

4. Relationship

y
Cartesian and
Cylindrical

Cylindrical
and Spherical

Cartesian and
Spherical

ez

er

ex

cos
sin
0

sin
cos
0

sin
cos
0

ex

er sin cos

ey

cos cos

sin

0
0
1

ez
0
0
1

ez
cos
sin
0

ez
sin sin cos
cos sin sin
cos
0

ey

ex

Unit circle

Cartesian and cylindric

ez

er

ey

Unit circle

Cylindrical and
spherical

1.3 Gradient of a Scalar Field

Scalar field and Vector field
A field is a spatial distribution of a quantity, which may or
may not be a function of time.
If the quantity is a scalar it is called scalar field;
Ex. Temperature Potential Altitude

If the quantity is a vector it is called vector field;

Ex Velocity of flow Gravity Electric Magnetic

If it is a function of time, it is called a time-varying field;

otherwise it is called a static field.

Expression for static field

u ( x, y, z ) F ( x, y, z )

Expression for time-varying field u ( x, y, z, t ) F ( x, y, z , t )

1. Level surface

Level surface: Surface on which the scalar

function is equal to a constant;

It describes the distribution of physical

quantities in space visually.

Equation u ( x, y, z ) C
Characteristics

Level surface (line)

When the constant C take a series of different values, a

series of different level surfaces will be obtained, forming
the level surface family;

These surfaces fill up all the space of the scalar field

These surfaces cannot intersect with each other.

u=c1
u=c2
u=c3

2. Directional derivative
u
u u
u
u
lim

cos
cos
cos
|
M
0
l
x
z
l 0 l
y

cos cos cos

s
l

directional cosines

Directional derivative: describes the spatial rate of change

of a scalar field;
r
u

0 u(M) increases
along line
l
l
r
u
l

0 u(M) decreases
along
line;
l
M0
l
M

0
l

r
u(M) with
l no change;

Characteristics directional derivative

l is
related to M0 as well as line direction.
Q What is the maximum spatial rate of change and

r
l

3. Gradient of a scalar field

gradu
value;

or

udirection of the Maximum

r is the
el
l

r uand
u e
|
l
l max

Describe the maximum spatial rate of change of the scalar

field in a point, and the direction of maximum value;
Expression of gradient
Cartesian
Coordinates:

u u u
u e x
ey
ez
x
y
z

Cylindrical
Coordinates:

u 1 u u
u e
e
ez

Spherical
Coordinates:

1 u
u 1 u
u er
e
e
r
r
r sin

The characteristic of the

gradients

The gradient of a scalar field is a vector field, the

magnitude represent the maximum value of the
spatial rate of change, and its direction is that in
which the directional derivative will be maximum;

The directional derivative of a scalar field at a

certain direction is the projection of the gradient
in the direction;

The direction of a gradient is perpendicular to the level surface

or Tangent plane

Basic equations

C 0
(Cu ) Cu

(u v ) u v
(uv ) uv vu

f (u ) f (u )u

Example1.2.1 Give a scalar (x,y,z) = x2 y2 z,

find:
(1) the gradient of at the point P(1,1,1),
and the unit vector of that gradient;

o
o
o
e

e
cos
60

e
cos
45

e
cos
60
(2) the directional derivativel of x along they unit vector:
z
, then compare the results and draw a conclusion.
Solution: (1) from the expression of gradient:

[(ex
ey
ez )( x 2 y 2 z )]P
x
y
z

(ex 2 x e y 2 y ez ) (1,1,1) ex 2 e y 2 ez

The unit vector of the gradient:

r
r
r
ex 2 x e y 2 y ez
r
r 2 r 2 r 1

el P

ex ey ez
2
2
2
3
3
3
P
(2 x) (2 y ) (1) (1,1,1)
(2) from the relationship of the directional derivative and
gradient, the directional derivative along the el:

1 2 1
el (ex 2 x e y 2 y ez ) (ex e y
ez )
l
2
2
2
1
x 2y
2
For a certain point, the value of the directional derivative:

x 2y 1
2

(1,1,1)

1 2 2
2

However the gradient of that point is:

P (2 x) 2 (2 y ) 2 (1) 2
Obviously

(1,1,1)

describe the maximum value of at the

point P, the maximum directional derivative, so always is:

1.4 Flux and divergence of a vector field

1. Flux line
Concept the tangent direction of
each point represents the direction of

r
F

Describe the distribution of the vector

r
dr
r r r
r r dr

field visually;

the vector field;

Vector line

Flux line equation

dx
dy
dz

Fx ( x, y, z ) Fy ( x, y, z ) Fz ( x, y, z )

2. Flux of a vector field

Q How to quantitatively describe the size of the
vector field Introducing the concept of flux;

r r
r r
d F dS F
en dS
S

and dS er dS surface
n

element
r The normal
unit vector of surface element
en

F ( x, y , z )

r
en

dS
Surface element

r r
r ds.

the
flux
through
d F en dS
dS
If the surface S is closed the normal unit vector of S is
outward, the flux of the vector field on the closed surface is:


F dS F en dS
S

 The physical meaning of flux

three kinds of possible results:

0
Only vector line out from
the closed surface

0
Only vector line in
from the closed surface

0
The vector line are
equally in and out

Flux on the closed surface build the relationship between the flux
of a vector field on a closed surface and the source which
produce the field.

3. Divergence of a vector field

Definition the net outward flux of A per unit
volume as the volume about the point tends to zero.

r
div F ( x, y, z ) lim

V 0

r
r

F ( x, y, z ) dS
S

Deduction the expression of

divergence in Cartesian coordinates
let the volume element V enclosed

point P to be a cube, using the expansion

of Taylor series:
x
x Fx
Fx ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) Fx x0 , y0 , z0
2
2 x
x
x Fx
Fx ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) Fx x0 , y0 , z0
2
2 x

x
x x0
2

P
y

x0 , y0 , z0

z
x
y

x
x0 , y0 , z0

In Cartesian coordinates

The flux flowing out from the surface elements

x
x x0
2

and x x0 x is:
2

Fx
x
x
[ Fx ( x0
, y0 , z0 ) Fx ( x0
, y0 , z0 )]y z
xy z
2
2
x

For the same reason flux through other surface

elements could be obtained, then
Fx
Fy
Fz
SF dS x xyz y xyz z xyz

According to the definition of divergence

r
div F lim

V 0

r r

F dS
S

Fx Fy Fz

x
y
z

r
r
div F F

The expression of
divergence

Cartesian
Coordinates:
Cylindrical
Coordinates:

Fx Fy Fz
F

x
y
z

( F ) F Fz
F

1 2
1

1
Spherical
F 2 (r Fr )
(sin F )
( F )
r r
r sin
r sin
Coordinates:

C C 0 (C)

The related
(Cf ) C f
formulas of

divergence
(kF ) k F ( k)

( fF ) f F F f
(F G) F G

4. The divergence theorem

The relationship between flux and divergence

r r
r

F dS FdV
S

S
S1

en2
Subdivided volume

S2

en1

1.5 Circulation and curl of

the vector field
1. Circulation and vortex source of the vector field

The relationship between the circulation and the

current of the magnetic field

B ( x, y, z ) dl 0 I 0 J ( x, y, z ) dS
S

Magnetic induction
line through the surface
Magnetic
induction
line
Or Magnetic induction line
also runs in and out of the surface

The definition of circulation

the circulation of a vector field around a
closed path is defined as the scalar line
integral of the vector over the path.

F ( x , y , z ) dl

If A is a force acting on an object, its circulation will be

the work done by the force in moving the object once
around the contour;
If A represents an electric field intensity, the circulation
will be an electromotive force around the closed path.

r
2. Curl of a vector field

F
1 Circulation area density
Circulation of closed curve around the unit surface element
boundary:

1
rot n F lim
S 0 S

F dl
C

r
n
S

Known as the circulation area density of vector field at

r
the point M along the direction of n

Characteristic The value is related

to the
n
direction of point M.

The circulation area density of surface element at any

orientation, is the projection of the maximum circulation area
density at that point:

r r
r
rot n F e n grotF
r
r
r
r
r r
r r
r
(e x cos e y cos e z cos )g(e x rot x F e y rot y F e z rot z F )

2 Curl of a vector field

r
rot F

r
en

r
rotF

 Expression of rot Fr rot Fr

y
x
coordinates

rot F
z

r deduction:
rot x F

F dl
C

l1

F dl

in Cartesian

l 2

F dl

l13

F dl

l 4

F dl

Fy1y Fz 2 z Fy 3 ( y ) Fz 4 (z )
Fy1 Fy ( M )

Fy

z
Fz
Fz 2 Fz ( M )
y
Fy 3 Fy ( M )

z
2
y
2

z
2

y
2

Fy
z

Fz
Fz 4 Fz ( M )
y

4
z

C
M

y 1

o
x

r
rot x F

Then
So

and

Fz Fy
C F dl ( y z )yz

F dl

Fz Fy
C
rot x F lim

S 0
S
y
z
Fy Fx
Fx Fz
rot z F

rot y F

x
y
z
x
r r Fz Fy
r Fx Fz
r Fy Fx
rot F ex
ey
ez

z
x
x y
z
y

r
r
r
ex ey ez

x y z
Fx Fy Fz

r
r
rot F F

The calculation formula of curl:

Fz Fy Fx Fz Fy Fx
Cartesian F ex
e y

ez
z
x
y
z
y
x
Coordinates:

ex e y ez

x y z
Fx Fy Fz
Cylindrical
Coordinates:

e
1
F

F

ez

z
Fz

Spherical
Coordinates:

er

F 2
r sin r
Fr

re

rF

r sin e

r sin F

The relevant formula of curl

The divergence
of a vectors
Curl is zero

The curl of a
scalars gradient
is zero

C 0

( fC ) f C

( fF ) f F f F

( F G) F G

(F G) G F F G

( F ) 0
(u ) 0

3. Stokes's Theorem
The relationship between the
circulation and rotation

Equally results in the

opposite direction, will be
cancelled by each other.

r r
r r

F dl F dS
C

Surface subdivision

4. The difference of divergence and curl

v
v
F 0, F 0

v
v
F 0, F 0

v
v
F 0. F 0

v
v
F 0, F 0

1.

1.6 Irrotational field and solenoidal field

1. Source of vector field
Divergence source
Vortex source

2. Classification of the vector field according to the

field source
1 Irrotational field
Vector field has only divergence
sources without curl source:

F 0

F dl 0

line integral independent with

path a conservative field
C

Irrotational field can be expressed using the gradient of a

scalar field:
F u

r
F (u ) 0
Example Electrostatic field

E 0 E

 2 Solenoidal field
Vector field has only curl source without
divergence source:
Feature

F dS 0

F 0

Solenoidal field: can be expressed as the curl of

another vector field

F A

F ( A) 0
Example: Static magnetic field

B 0 B A

 3 Irrotational and solenoidal field(Source is outside the

discussed region)

r
F 0
r
F 0

r
F u

( u ) 0

2u 0

4 Normal field neither solenoidal nor irrotational

This field can be decomposed into two parts
irrotational part and solenoidal part;
r r
r r
r r
r r
r
F (r ) Fl (r ) FC (r ) u (r ) A(r )
Irrotational part

Solenoidal part

1.7 Laplacian operation

Scalar laplacian
2u
operation

(u ) u
2

Laplasse
operation

Equation
Cartesian
Coordinates:

2
2
2

u
2
u 2 2 2
x
y
z

Cylindrical
Coordinates:

1
u
1 2u 2u
u
( ) 2 2 2

z
2

2
1

u
1

u
1

u
Spherical
2u 2 ( r 2 ) 2
(sin ) 2 2
2
r

r
r
sin

r
sin

Coordinates:

1.8 Helmholtzs Theorem

Helmholtzs Theorem:
In an unbounded region, a vector field is determined to within
an additive constant if both its divergence and its curl are
specified everywhere

F (r ) u (r ) A(r )

F ( r )
Where u (r) 1
dV

4 V r r

1
F (r )
A(r )
dV

4 V r r

Vector field confined within a region bounded

by a surface, is determined if its divergence
and curl throughout the region, as well as the
normal component of the vector over the
bounding face ,are given.

1 F (r )
1
F (r ) dS

u (r )
dV

V
S

4
r r
4
r r

1 F (r )
1
F (r ) dS
A(r )
dV

V
S

4
r r
4
r r

Bounded
area

Thanks