COMPOSITE

MATERIALS

COMPOSITES

Can you think of any examples of

where composites are used?

Introduction
Composite materials are engineered materials made from two or more
constituent materials that remain separate and distinct while forming a
single component.
Generally, one material forms a continuous matrix while the other provides
the reinforcement.
The two materials must be chemically inert with respect to each other so
no interaction occurs upon heating until one of the components melts.
Examples:
Plastic molding compounds containing fillers
Rubber mixed with carbon black
Wood (a natural composite as distinguished from a synthesized
composite)
Composites can be found in: The aerospace industry
Automotive parts (panels, frames, dashboards, body repairs)

Why Composites are Important

Composites can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in weight, so ratios
of strengthtoweight and stiffnesstoweight are several times greater
than steel or aluminum
Fatigue properties are generally better than for common engineering
metals
Toughness is often greater too.
Composites can be designed that do not corrode like steel
Possible to achieve combinations of properties not attainable with metals,
ceramics, or polymers alone.
There is unabated thirst for new materials with improved desired
properties. All the desired properties are difficult to find in a single
material. For example, a material which needs high fatigue life may not be
cost effective.

Types of reinforcement
The reinforcements in a composite material come in various forms.
Fiber: Fiber is an individual filament of the material. A filament with length to diameter ratio above 1000
is called as a fiber. The fibrous form of the reinforcement is widely used. The fibers can be in the
following two forms:
Continuous fibres: If the fibres used in a composite are very long and unbroken or cut then it forms
a continuous fibre composite. A composite, thus formed using continuous fibres is called as fibrous
composite. The fibrous composite is the widely used form of composite.
Short/chopped fibres: The fibres are chopped into small pieces when used in fabricating a
composite. A composite with short fibres as reinforcements is called as short fibre composite.
Particulate: The reinforcement is in the form of particles which are of the order of a few microns in the
diameter. The particles are generally added to increase the modulus and decrease the ductility of the
matrix materials. In this case, the load is shared by both particles and matrix materials. The composite
with reinforcement in particle form is called as particulate composite.
Flake: Flake is a small, flat, thin piece or layer (or a chip) that is broken from a larger piece. Since these
are two dimensional in geometry, they impart almost equal strength in all directions of their planes.
Thus, these are very effective reinforcement components. The flakes can be packed more densely
when they are laid parallel, even denser than unidirectional fibres and spheres.
Whiskers: These are nearly perfect single crystal fibres. These are short, discontinuous and polygonal

Classification of fibre composite materials

Classification of composites based on reinforcement

type

Classification of fibre composite materials

Why is the reinforcement made in thin fibre form?

There are various reasons because of which the reinforcement is made in thin fibre form. These reasons
are given below.
a)Wires of same diameter with shorter length showed higher tensile strength than those longer lengths.
The reason for this is the fact that the number of flaws in a shorter length of wire is small as
compared longer length.
Further, it is well known that the strength of a bulk material is very less than the strength of the
same material in wire form.
The same fact has been explored in the composites with reinforcement in fibre form. As the fibres
are made of thin diameter, the inherent flaws in the material decrease. Hence, the strength of the fibre
increases as the fibre diameter decreases.

b) The quality of load transfer between fibre and matrix depends upon the surface area between fibre
and matrix. If the surface area between fibre and matrix is more, better is the load transfer.
It can be shown that for given volume of fibres in a composite, the surface area between fibre and
matrix increases if the fibre diameter decreases.
Let D be the average diameter of the fibres,L be the length of the fibres and Nbe the
number of fibres for a given volume of fibres in a composite. Then the surface area available for load
transfer is
The volume of these fibres in a composite is

Now, let us replace the fibres with a smaller average diameter ofdsuch that the volume of the fibres is unchanged. Then
the number of fibres required to maintain the same fibre volume is

The new surface area between fibre and matrix is

Thus, for a given volume of fibres in a composite, the area between fibre and matrix is inversely proportional to the average diameter of the fibres .

Contd..
c) The fibres should be flexible so that they can be bent easily without breaking. This
property of the fibres is very important for woven composites. In woven composites the
flexibility of fibres plays an important role. Ultra thin composites are used in deployable
structures.The flexibility is simply the inverse of the bending stiffness. From mechanics
of solids study the bending stiffness is EI, whereEis Youngs modulus of the material
andIis the second moment of area of the cross section of the fibre. For a cylindrical
fibre, the second moment of area is

Thus, flexibility
Thus, from the above equation it is clear that if a fibre is thin, that is, small in diameter it is more flexible.

function of a reinforcing agent

These are the main load carrying constituents.
The reinforcing materials have significantly higher desired properties.
It transfers the strength and stiffness to the matrix material.

function of a matrix material

The matrix material holds the fibres together.
The matrix plays an important role to keep the fibres at desired positions.
It transfers the load uniformly between fibers.
It provides protection to fibers from environmental effects.
It provides better finish to the final product.
The matrix material enhances some of the properties of the resulting
material and structural component (that fibre alone is not able to impart)

Types of fiber
Fibres that are used in the fabrication of a composite can be divided into
two broad categories as follows:
1.Natural fibres and 2. Advanced fibres
Natural fibres:-These are divided into following three sub categories.
Animal fibers: silk, wool, camel hair, etc.
Plant/vegetable fibers: cotton, jute, bamboo, sugarcane, banana etc.
Mineral fibers: asbestos, basalt, mineral wool, glass wool.
Advanced fibers: An advanced fibre is defined as a fibre which has a high
specific stiffness (that is, ratio of Youngs modulus to the density of the
material) and a high specific strength (that is the ratio of ultimate strength to
the density of the material).
Eg:-fibres made from following materials are the advanced fibres.
Carbon or Graphite 2. Glass fibers 3. Alumina 4. Silicon carbide

Types of Matrix Materials

Matrix Materials

polymer

Thermosets

Metal

Thermoplasti
cs

Ceramic

Aluminum

Silicon
carbide

Titanium

Silicon nitride

Copper

Carbon and
Graphite

Polymer Matrix Materials

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess
lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties.
It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used
in aeronautical applications.
Two main kinds of polymers are thermoplastics and thermosets .
Thermoplastic: which soften upon heating and can be reshaped with heat
and pressure.
Eg:- 1. Polypropylene
2. Polyvinyl chloride
3. Nylon
4. Polyurethane
5. Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS),
Key features of the thermoplastic matrix materials are:
1. Higher toughness
2. High volume
3. Low cost
processing
4. The use

Contd..

Thermoset which become cross linked during fabrication and does not soften upon
reheating.
They decompose instead of melting on hardening.
Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions
suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics.
They are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced
composites.
The thermoset matrix materials are:
1. Polyesters
2. Epoxies
3. Polyimides
Key features of Polyesters are:
Used extensively with glass fibers
Inexpensive
Light weight
Temperature range upto 1000C
Resistant to environmental exposures

Contd..
Key features of Epoxy are:
Expensive
Better moisture resistance
Lower shrinkage on curing
Use temperature is about 1750C
Key features of Polymide are:
Higher use temperature about 3000C
Difficult to fabricate

Problems with the use of Polymer Matrix Materials

Limited temperature range.
Susceptibility to environmental degradation due to moisture, radiation,
atomic oxygen.
Low transverse strength.
High residual stress due to large mismatch in coefficients of thermal
expansion between fiber and matrix.

Comparison Between Thermoplastics and Thermosets

Thermoplastics

Thermosets

Soften upon heat and pressure

Decompose upon heating

Hence, can be repaired

Difficult to repair

High strains are required for failure

Low strains are required for failure

Can be re-processed

Can not be re-processed

Indefinite shelf life

Limited shelf life

Short curing cycles

Long curing cycles

Non tacky and easy to handle

Tacky and therefore, difficult to handle

Excellent resistance to solvents

Fair resistance to solvents

Higher processing temperature is Lower

processing

temperature

is

Factors affecting composite properties

Properties of the constituent materials.
Properties of other phases present, like additives, fillers
and other reaction phases.
Length of the fibre.
Orientation of the fibres (with respect to the loading
direction).
Cross sectional shape of the fibre.
Distribution and arrangement of the fibres in the matrix
material.
Proportions of the fibre and matrix material, that is,
volume fractions of the constituent materials

 (a) A hexagonal cell honeycomb core, (b) can be joined to

two face sheets by means of adhesive sheets, (c) producing
an exceptionally lightweight yet stiff, strong honeycomb
sandwich structure.

Aramid-aluminum laminate
(layers joined by adhesives)

Lightning strike
resistance
Fatigue resistance

Fiber Orientation

Unidirectional
composite

Longitudinal
direction

Transverse
direction

Through-thickness
direction

Contd..
Maximum strength
is obtained when
long
fibers
are
oriented parallel to
the applied load.
The effect of fiber
orientation
and
strength
can
be
seen in the plot

Effect of fiber orientation on the tensile strength of E-glass fiber-reinforced epoxy

composites.

Contd..
The properties of fiber
composites
can
be
tailored to meet different
loading requirements.
By using combinations of
different fiber orientation
quasi-isotropic materials
may be produced

Figure (a) shows a unidirectional arrangement

Figure (b) shows a quasi-isotropic arrangement

Contd..
A
three
dimensional
weave is also
possible.
This could be
found
when
fabrics
are
knitted
or
weaved
together

Rule of Mixtures
In a composite material with a metal matrix and
ceramic fibers, the bulk of the energy would be
transferred through the matrix.
In a composite consisting of a polymer matrix
containing metallic fibers, the energy would be
transferred through the fibers.
When the fibers are not continuous or unidirectional,
the simple rule of mixtures may not apply.
For example, in a metal fiber-polymer matrix
composite, electrical conductivity would be low and
would depend on the length of the fibers, the volume
fraction of fibers and how often the fibers touch one

Fiber Reinforced Composites / FRP

FRP stands for Fiber Reinforced Plastic.
FRP is used in structural shapes, repair
materials or as reinforcement for concrete.

Fiber reinforced composites provide improved strength, fatigue

resistance, Youngs modulus and strength to weight ratio over the
constituent materials.
This is achieved by incorporating strong, stiff, yet brittle fibers into
a more ductile matrix.
Fiber supplies the strength and stiffness while the matrix binds the
fibers together and provides a means of transferring the load
between fibers.
The matrix also provides protection for the fibers.

Materials used in FRP as a fiber are-Glass, Polyvinyl Alcohol, Carbon.

Materials used in FRP as a matrix(Resin) are-Epoxy and polyester.

Characteristics of Fiber Reinforced Composites

Many factors must be considered when designing a fiber-reinforced composite
including the length, diameter, orientation, amount and properties of the
constituents, and the bonding between them.
The method used to produce the final product is also very important as it
indicates the type of properties just mentioned as well as the quality of the
product.
Fiber dimensions are characterized by their aspect ratio l/d where l is the fiber
length and d is the diameter.
The strength improves when the aspect ratio is large.
Typical fiber diameters are from 10 m to 150 m.
Fibers often fracture because of surface imperfections.
Making the diameter small reduces its surface area, which has fewer flaws.
Long fibers are preferred because the ends of the fiber carry less of the load.
Thus the longer the fiber, the fewer the ends and the higher the load carrying
capacity of the fibers.

Contd..

As can be seen
from this plot, the
strength
of
the
composite
increases as the
fiber
length
increases (this is a
chopped
E-glassepoxy composite)

Applications of FRP
Reinforcement bars for Concrete.
Prestressing Tendons for Concrete Members.
FRP sheets can be used to increase flexural strength in weakened or under designed
members.
Aerospace much of the structural weight of todays airplanes and helicopters consist
of advanced FRPs.
Automotive Continued use of low-carbon sheet steel in cars is evidence of its low cost
and ease of processing
Advantages of FRP
Will Not Corrode In Field Conditions.
Lightweight.
Strong in Tension.
Methods of Construction Same as Steel Reinforcement.
Disadvantages of FRP
Low Moduli of Elasticity.
Cannot be Shaped in the Field.
More Expensive than Steel.
Coefficients of Thermal Expansion are Different than Those of Steel or Concrete.

Glass Fibers
Glass fiberisamaterialconsistingofnumerousextremelyfinefibersofglass.
Individualfilamentsaresmallindiameters,isotropicandveryflexibleasthediameterissmall.
Duetotherelativelyinexpensivecostglassfibersarethemostcommonlyusedreinforcement.
Hasroughlycomparablepropertiestootherfiberssuchaspolymersandcarbonfiber.Although
notasstrongorasrigidascarbonfiber,itismuchcheaperandsignificantlylessbrittle.
Properties of Glass Fiber are:
Highstrength-to-weightratio;
Highmodulusofelasticity-to-weightratio;
Goodcorrosionresistance;
Goodinsulatingproperties;
Lowthermalresistance(ascomparedtometalsandceramics).
Glassfiberiscommonlyusedasaninsulatingmaterial.
Itisalsousedasareinforcingagentformanypolymerproducts;toformaverystrongand
lightfiber-reinforcedpolymer(FRP)compositematerialcalledglass-reinforcedplastic(GRP),
popularlyknownas"fiberglass".

Types of Glass Fiber

Types of glass fibre with key features
E glass - The most popular and inexpensive glass fibers. The designation letter E
means electrical ( E-Glass is excellent insulator). Properties are high strength and high
resistivity.
S glass - Stronger than E-Glass fibers (the letter S means strength). High strength
glass is generally known as S-type glass in the United States, R-Glass in Europe and TGlass in Japan. Properties are high strength, modulus and stability under extreme
temperature and corrosive environment. Used in military applications and in aerospace.
C glass - corrosion and chemical resistant glass fibers. To protect against water
erosion, a moisture-resistant coating such as a silane compound is coated onto the
fibers during manufacturing. Adding resin during composite formation provides additional
protection. C-Glass fibers are used for manufacturing storage tanks, pipes and other
chemical resistant equipment.
D glass low dielectric constant with superior electrical properties. However, its
mechanical properties are not so good as E-or S-glass. It is available in limited
quantities.

CARBON FIBER
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP or CRP) is a light-weight, high strength,
composite material.
Depending on the task, carbon fiber reinforced plastic is made with different kind of
plastics and fibers.
For low volume parts, it can be made by putting carbon fiber fabric and resin into a
mold and allowing to harden in a vacuum.
Carbon fibers have gained a lot of popularity in the last two decades due to the price
reduction.
Carbon fiber composites are five times stronger than steel yet five times lighter.
In comparison to aluminum, carbon fiber composites are seven times stronger and two
times stiffer yet still 1.5 times lighter.
Initially used exclusively by the aerospace industry they are becoming more and more
common in fields such as automotive, civil infrastructure, and paper production.

Attractive properties of carbon fiber polymer-matrix composites

lowdensity(40%lowerthanaluminum).
highstrength(asstrongashigh-strengthsteels).
highstiffness(stifferthantitanium,yetmuchlowerindensity).
goodfatigueresistance(avirtuallyunlimitedlifeunderfatigueloading).
lowfrictioncoefficientandgoodwearresistance.
corrosionresistance(impervioustocorrosion).
Easiertomoldandwork.
Longerlifetime.
Lessmaintenance.
Lessermaterialused.
Reducespollution.
Reducesweight

Advantages of composite material

Specific stiffness and specific strength:

The composite materials have high specific stiffness and strengths. Thus, these material offer
better properties at lesser weight as compared to conventional materials. Due to this, one gets
improvedperformanceatreducedenergyconsumption.
Tailor able design:
Alargesetofdesignparametersareavailabletochoosefrom.Thus,makingthedesignprocedure
moreversatile.Theavailabledesignparametersare:
Choiceofmaterials(fiber/matrix),volumefractionoffiberandmatrix,fabricationmethod,
layerorientation,no.oflayer/laminainagivendirection,thicknessofindividuallayers,type
oflayersstackingsequence.
Acomponentcanbedesignedtohavedesiredpropertiesinspecificdirections.
Fatigue Life:
Thecompositescanwithstandmorenumberoffatiguecyclesthanthatofaluminum.Thecritical
structuralcomponentsinaircraftrequirehighfatiguelife.Theuseofcompositesinfabricationof
suchstructuralcomponentsisthusjustified.

Contd..

Corrosion Resistance:
Polymerandceramicmatrixmaterialusedtomakecompositeshavehighresistancetocorrosion
frommoisture,chemicals.
Cost Effective Fabrication:
The components fabricated from composite are cost effective with automated methods like
filamentwindingandtapelaying.Thereisalesserwastageoftherawmaterialsastheproductis
fabricatedtothefinalproductsizeunlikeinmetals.
Conductivity:
Theconductivityofthecompositescanbeachievedtomakeitainsulatororahighlyconducting
material.
For example, Glass/polyesters are non conducting materials. These materials can be used in
space ladders, booms etc. where one needs higher dimensional stability, whereas copper matrix
materialgivesahighthermalconductivity.
Dimensional Stability:
Strain due to temperature can change shape, size, increase friction, wear and thermal stresses.
The dimensional stability is very important in application like space antenna. For composites,
withproperdesignitispossibletoachievealmostzerocoefficientofthermalexpansion.

Disadvantages of composite material

Somefabricsareveryhardontooling.
Hiddendefectsaredifficulttolocate.
Inspectionmayrequirespecialtoolsandprocesses.
Filament-wound parts may not be repairable. Repairing may introduce new
problems.
Highcostofrawmaterials.
Highinitialcostoftooling,productionset-up,etc.
Labourintensive.
Healthandsafetyconcerns.
Trainingofthelabourisessential.
Reuseofthematerialsisdifficult.
Thecomposites,ingeneral,arebrittleinnatureandhenceeasilydamageable.
Thematrixmaterialisweakandhencethecompositehaslowtoughness.
Thetransversepropertiesoflaminaorlaminateare,ingeneral,weak.