CHAPTER 1

TRANSPORT

Living organisms
Receive O2 & nutrients from the
environment
Eliminate CO2 & waste products
DIFFUSION

Exchange of substances occurs

rapidly if :

a) TSA/V of organisms is large

b) Near distance (between source & the
body cells)
c) [ ] gradient between source & the body
cells

TSA / V
Unicellular organisms
- Obtain substances ~ diffusion
- TSA / V is very high (waste products, nutrients,
O2 diffuse easily across cell surface)
Large multicellular organisms
- TSA / V is too small
- Distance between source & the body cells too
far (for direct exchange)

Overcome the problem

Multicellular organisms overcome the
problem (get cellular requirements &
discard waste products) by having a

circulatory system

The Circulatory
System


a)
b)
c)

Function of circulatory system :

Send nutrients & O2 to cells
Carry waste products
Protects the body (infections)

3 major components of circulatory

system :
a) Blood
b) Heart
c) Blood vessels

Blood & haemolymph

Blood medium of transport in humans

& animals

Haemolymph medium of transport in

insects

The functions of blood

Transportation
Regulation
Protection
a) Transport O2 & CO2, nutrients, hormones &
antibodies, waste products
b) Regulation pH, body temp & water content
(cell)
c) Protection fr excessive blood loss &
diseases (fight against infections white blood
cells)

The functions of haemolymph

Transport H2O, salts (Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl-)
& organic compounds
Does not transport respiratory gases
(transported through tracheal system)

Composition of human blood

a) Plasma
55%
Main transport medium in body
Major constituent (water, ions, plasma
proteins, hormones, nutrients, waste
products & respiratory gases)

Pale yellow liquid (part of the blood)

Composition vary at different part of the
body

Consists of about 90% H2O and 10%of

dissolved substances, such as :
a) Products of digestion
b) Dissolved gases

Newly collected plasma

b) Cellular components
Consists of erythrocytes, leucocytes & platelets

Composition of Human Blood

Adult human has 5 ~ 6 litres of blood
Blood is the connective tissue,
containing blood cells suspended in
plasma.
Blood cells (erythrocytes, leucocytes &
thrombocytes ) ~ 45 %
Plasma ~ 55%

Human blood

Erythrocytes structural adaptation to

its function
1. Erythrocytes :
a) Biconcave disc shape
b) No nucleus (large TSA / V for rapid diffusion of
O2 across plasma membrane)
c) Elastic membrane (squeeze easily into blood
capillaries efficient gaseous exchange)

2. Erythrocytes contain haemoglobin

Haemoglobin
- Is the iron-containing pigment (give red colour)
- Contain haem group site of O2 binding
- Its a respiratory protein.

Haemoglobin combines with O2 to form

oxyhaemoglobin HbO2.
Hb +

4 O2

HbO8

5. Mature erythrocytes have no nucleus :

Provide more space for haemoglobin to be
packed into the cell
3. Lifespan 120 days (destroy in liver &
spleen)
4. Manufactured in bone marrow (long bones,
ribs, skull, vertebrae

Main functions of erythrocytes :

a) transport O2 from the lungs to all parts of the

body
b) Carry CO2 from the tissues to the lungs
c) As buffers & help to maintain blood pH

Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

Leucocytes

Colourless, have nucleus & mitochondria

Irregular in shape (larger than erythrocytes)
Made by stem cells (in bone marrow)
Most leucocytes carry out activities in interstitial
fluid (outside blood vessels)

Classified as :
a) Granulocytes
b) Agranulocytes

a) Granulocytes

Have an irregularly lobed nucleus &

granular cytoplasm

3 types of granulocytes

i) Neutrophils (phagocytic granulocytes)

ii) Eosinophils (control allergic responses & kill
parasitic worms)
iii) Basophils (secrete heparin(anti-clotting
protein) to prevent blood clotting & secrete
histamine which is involved in inflammation)

Neutrophils

Eosinophils

Basophils

b) Agranulocytes

Have a smooth rounded / bean-shaped

nucleus
Clear cytoplasm (lacks granules)

2 types of agranulocytes :
i) Lymphocytes (body defense)
ii) Monocytes (phagocytosis of bac engulf &
digest bac & dead cells)

Lymphocytes

Lymphocyte surrounded by red

blood cells

Monocytes

Similarities - both are blood cells

Differences
Erythrocytes

Leucocytes

Size

Smaller

Larger

Shape

Definite shape
(biconcave discshaped)

No definite shape

Nucleus

Absent

Present

Pigment

Haemoglobin
present

Absent

Function

Transport of O2

Immune response

Platelets

Small irregularly shaped cell fragments

Produced in bone marrow
No nucleus
Life span 5-9 days
Destroyed in the spleen & liver
Important in blood clotting (reduce blood
loss & prevent the entry of pathogens)

Platelets

Structure of Human Blood Vessels

Blood vessels transport blood from one
part to another in the human body
3 main types of blood vessels :
a) Arteries
b) Capillaries
c) Veins

a) Arteries

Carry blood away from the heart towards the

other tissues & organs

Branch into smaller vessels ~ arterioles

Arterioles branch to form tiny blood vessels with
thin walls ~ capillaries

Transport oxygenated blood (except

pulmonary artery)

 The wall of an artery :

- Consists of epithelial tissue surrounded
by smooth muscles & connective
tissues
- Have thick, muscular & elastic walls
(withstand high pressure of blood inside
the arteries)

Artery

b) Capillaries
Sites for exchange of nutrients,
respiratory gases & wastes &
hormones (diffusion)
Smallest & most numerous blood vessels
Wall only 1 cell thick (thin walls)

 Capillaries join with one another to

form venules
Connet arterioles to venules
Venules join together to form veins
Erythrocytes & large protein molecules
are unable to leak out of the capillaries
Leucocytes can squeeze through the
capillaries walls into the tissue spaces

c) Veins
Carry blood back to the heart
Veins receive blood from small blood vessels
called venules
Posses less smooth muscle tissues than an
artery
Have thinner walls than arteries (blood
pressure in veins is much lower than in the
arteries)
Lumen is larger in diameter than in an artery

Cross section of a vein

Arteries

Capillaries

Veins

Transport blood
away from the
heart.

Connect arterioles
to venules.

Transport blood to
the heart.

Transport
oxygenated
blood (except the
pulmonary artery)

Act as the sites for

exchange of
substances with
the cells.

Transport
deoxygenated
blood (except the
pulmonary vein)

Thick, muscular &

elastic wall.

Thinnest wall,
one cell in
thickness.

Thin, less
muscular, less
elastic.

No valves.

No valves.

Valves (maintain 1
way flow of blood)

Blood flows under

high pressure.

Low blood pressure Very low blood

pressure

Basic Structure
of Human Heart
& Its Function

Structure of the human heart

Heart organ responsible to pump

blood continuously around the
body
About the size of a clenched fist
Dark red, cone-shaped, muscular organ
Found in the thoracic cavity between 2
lungs

 Has 4 muscular chambers :

a) 2 upper chambers (atria, sing : atrium)
b) 2 lower chambers (ventricles)

Atria receive blood & return to the heart

Ventricles pump blood out of the heart

Heart contracts & relaxes in rhythmic cycle :

a) Contract pump blood
b) Relax chambers filled with blood

 Atria (as collection chambers)

- Have thin walls
- Right atrium receives deoxygenated
blood fr vena cava
- Left atrium receives oxygenated blood fr
the pulmonary veins

Structure of the human heart

Ventricles
When atria contract, blood is pumped into
ventricles
- Have thicker walls & stronger contraction than
atria
- Left ventricles wall thicker than right
ventricles wall
Because : Left ventricle needs to generate greater
pressure to pump blood to all parts of the
body. Right ventricle pump blood to lungs only

 Heart has valves (blood flows in 1 direction) :

a) Tricuspid valve between right atrium & right
ventricle
b) Bicuspid valve between left atrium & left ventricle
Contraction of ventricles close the valves
(prevent blood flows back to atria)
c) semi-lunar valves
Located at the exits (where pulmonary artery &
aorta leave the heart)
Prevent blood flows back into ventricles (ventricle
relax)

How is Blood propelled

through the
Human Circulatory
System?

Blood flows from high pressure area to

low pressure areas

Pressure gradients are produced in the

following ways:
a) The pumping of the heart
b) The contraction of skeletal muscles
around the veins

a) Pumping of the heart

Heart muscle ~ cardiac muscle :
- Is myogenic (contract & relaxes without any
stimulation by nerve impulses)

Pacemaker :
Specialised heart muscle cells
Initiate the contractions of the heart
Located in the wall of right atrium
Generates electrical impulses (cause atria to
contract rhythmically)

Hearts primary pacemaker ~ sinoatrial (SA)

node (keeps regular heartbeats)

Fr SA node, impulses then send to AV node (at

the bottom of right atrium)

AV node send impulses to ventricles to contract

through specialised muscles :
a) Bundle of His fibres
b) Bundle branches
c) Purkinje fibres

Ventricles contract & pump blood to lungs &

other parts of the body
SA node

AV node

Ventricle

 Pacemaker is controlled by :
a)Nervous system
b)Endocrine system
2 opposing sets of nerves regulate pacemaker
a)Parasympathetic nerves slow down pacemaker
b)Sympathetic nerves speed up pacemaker
Hormone adrenaline control pacemaker by :
- heartbeats during fear, excitement @ danger

b) Contraction of skeletal muscles

around the veins

Heart pumping just generate enough force to pump

blood through arteries & blood capillaries

Blood that reach veins :

a) Pressure generate by heart pumping not sufficient to

force the blood back to the heart
b) The blood is sent back to heart with the help of
contractions of skeletal muscles around the veins
c) When skeletal muscles contract, veins constrict &
push the blood along the veins (because veins
have 1-way valves - allow blood flows in direction
towards heart)

Regulatory Mechanism of
Blood Pressure

 Blood pressure :
- Is the force that pumps blood along arteries &
capillaries
- Exerts during blood flows against the wall
- Greater in arteries than veins
- Flows fr pressure to pressure
- Regulated by negative feedback mechanism
During systole (contraction of ventricles),
blood pressure is highest in aorta & pulmonary
arteries

 Healthy adult ~ 120/80 mm Hg

- 120 (systolic pressure) contraction of ventricle
- 80 (diastolic pressure) relaxation
Baroreceptors (pressure receptor)
- Located in the walls of the aorta & carotid
arteries
- Monitor the pressure of blood flowing to the brain
& to the body
- Send impulses continuously to cardiovascular
centre in medulla oblongata (to regulate blood
pressure)

An increase in blood pressure (physical activitiy)

Baroreceptors are stimulated

Increase rate of nerve impulses to the cardiovascular
centre in the medula oblongata
Send impulses to effectors via parasympathetic nerves

Actions :

a) Weak cardiac muscle contractions

b) Lower heartbeat
c) Smooth muscles of artery relax & dilate (vasodilation
widen of blood vessels)

It slows down the heartbeat

A decrease of blood pressure (shock)

Baroreceptors less stimulated

rate of nerve impulses sent to cardiovascular
centre in medulla oblongata
Send impulses to effectors via sympathetic nerves

Actions :

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Stronger cardiac muscle constractions

heartbeat
Smooth muscles of arteries contract
resistance of blood flow in blood vessels
Vasoconstriction (narrow the blood vesssels)

The Circulatory Systems

in Humans & other
Animals

2 types of circulatory system :

a)

Open circulatory system (Insects)

Consists of 1 @ more hearts & network of vessels
Have haemocoel (space within the body)
Blood pumped directly into body cavity

b) Closed circulatory system (humans,

invertebrates)
Blood flows within heart & vessels
Blood pumped into blood vessels

Mammals (Humans)

Have :
4 chambered heart (2 atria & 2 ventricle)
Double circulatory system (consists of the
pulmonary circulation & systemic circulation)

Pulmonary circulation :
a) Deoxygenated blood in right ventricle pumped into
pulmonary arteries
b) Arteries carry the blood to lungs (remove CO2 &
take in O2)
c) Oxygenated blood passed back to the left atrium
via pulmonary veins.

b) Systematic circulation
Blood is carried fr heart to other parts of body (except
lungs)
Oxygenated blood fr lungs returns to left atrium &
flows into left ventricle
It is then send to aorta for distribution to the rest of the
body (except the lungs)
Deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium via
the superior vena cava (from the head & arms) & the
inferior vena cava (from the legs & rest of the body)

In double circulatory system ~ blood enters the

heart twice during 1 complete cycle.

The 4-chambered heart prevents the mixing of the

oxygenated & deoxygenated blood.
a) Right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the
lungs
b) Left side pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of
the body

Separation of right & left chambers:

Prevents the high blood pressure from damaging
the fine blood capillaries of the lungs

Advantage of double circulatory system

Oxygenated blood returns to the heart to be

pump again before being distributed to the rest
of the body.
This increase the pressure of the blood & the
rate of flow, thereby speeding up the delivery
of O2 to the tissues & organs

Humans heart

Fish

 Have a single circulatory system - blood flows

through heart only once for each complete circuit
A fish have a heart : 2 separate chambers (an
atrium & a ventricle)
Deoxygenated blood leaves the heart at high
pressure & passes through gills
Gaseous exchange occurs at the gills
Oxygenated blood then flows directly to the rest of
the body
Deoxygenated blood fr organs is collected in
sinuses

Amphibians (Frog)

Amphibians use the buccal cavity, moist skin

& lungs to carry out gaseous exchange.

Have 3-chambered heart (2 atria & 1 ventricle,

which are not separated by septum)

Amphibians have a double closed circulatory

system:
a) Pulmonary circulation
b) Systemic circulation

 Pulmonary circulation:
Blood flows from the heart to the lungs & back
to the heart.
Systemic circulation:
The blood flows from the heart to other parts of
the body & back to the heart.
Since there is only 1 ventricle, there is some
mixing of oxygenated & deoxygenated blood in
it.
The mixed blood enters the systemic circulation.

 The blood contains lower levels of O2 but is

sufficient to meet the cellular requirements of
amphibians.
This is known as incomplete double
circulatory system.
It is less efficient system than complete double
circulatory system in mammals & birds.

Comparisons between the circulatory systems in fish,

amphibians & humans
Fish

Amphibia
ns

Humans

Blood circulatory
system

Present

Present

Present

Types of circulatory
system

Closed,
single

Closed,
incomplete
double

Closed,
complete
double

Blood pressure (in

vessels)

Low

High

High

Blood flow (in vessels)

Slow

Fast

Fast

No. of heart chambers

Two

Three

Four

No. of atria

One

Two

Two

No. of ventricle

One

One

Two

Mechanism of Blood
Clotting

Blood clotting is necessary :

Prevent serious blood loss
Prevent the entry of microorganisms &
foreign particles
Maintain blood pressure
Maintain the circulation of blood in a
closed circulatory system

Mechanism of Blood Clotting :

1. When a blood vessel is damaged, the fibres
(connective tissue) in the vessel wall become
exposed to blood plasma.
2. Blood vessels around the wound immediately
constrict to reduce blood loss.
3. Platelets stick to the exposed fibres, soon, a
cluster of platelets develops around the
wound.

4. The aggregation of platelets forms a plug

called a platelet plug (stop blood loss)
5. Platelets then release thromboplastin (a
protein / clotting factor)
6. Thromboplastin with the help of Ca & vit K,
convert prothrombin (inactive protein in the
plasma) to thrombin (active protein).

Vit. K is needed for production of prothrombin in

liver

7. Thrombin (enzyme) convert fibrinogen (soluble

plasma protein) into fibrin (insoluble).
8. Fibrin filament form network of fibres (sticky)
that traps red blood cells.

Finally, a blood clot is formed.

 Pelangi pg 332

Consequences of
Impaired Blood Clotting
Mechanisms in Humans

1. Haemophilia
Genetic diseases.
Lack the gene for the production of clotting
factors.
Causes serious bleeding.
Haemophilia is caused by a single recessive
gene on the X chromosome.
May die of internal or external bleeding.

2. Thrombosis
Is the obstruction of a blood vessel by a mass of
blood cells & fibrin.
A blood clot that forms within the blood circulation is
called a thrombus.
Thrombus cause blockage of artery ~ known as
thrombosis.
Thrombosis in the veins of the legs is called deep
vein thrombosis. The thrombus can travel to vital
organs (heart & brain).
Thrombosis in the brain ~ stroke.
Thrombosis in the heart ~ heart attack.

Lymphatic
System

 Blood that enters the arterial end of capillaries is

under high pressure (because the blood
capillaries have a smaller diameter than the
arteries)
This high pressure causes fluid to leak
continuously from the blood plasma into the
spaces between the cells ~ interstitial fluid.
The interstitial fluid fills the spaces between the
cells & bathes the cells.

The exchange of substances between the

blood capillaries & the body cells occurs in the
interstitial fluid :

a) O2 & nutrients diffuse into the body cells

b) CO2 & waste products diffuse fr the body cells
into the blood.

Composition of interstitial fluid

 It does not contain plasma proteins, erythrocytes

& platelets ~ too large to pass through the
capillary walls.
The fluid that leaves the blood at the arterial end
of the capillary re-enters at the venous end.
The interstitial fluid must be returned to the
circulatory system to maintain the normal
blood volume.

 About 15% of the fluid is still remains in the

interstitial space. This fluid loss is returned to
the blood through lymphatic system.

The Lymphatic
System

 Lymphatic system :
- Receives unabsorbed interstitial fluid from the
spaces between the cells & returns it to the
circulatory system
- One-way system consists of lymph capillaries,
lymphatic vessels & lymph nodes
Lymph capillaries :
Blind-ended tubes (closed at one end) located in
the spaces between the cells.

 Interstitial fluid that has not been reabsorbed into

the bloodstream goes into lymph capillaries.
Once inside the lymph capillaries, the fluid is
known as lymph (transparent yellowish fluid)
Lymph capillaries converge into larger lymphatic
vessels.
One-way valves in lymphatic vessels :
- Ensure continuous flow of lymph away fr body
cells
- Prevent backflow of the lymph.

Lymph nodes ~ located at intervals along the

lymphatic vessels
a) Produce & store lymphocytes
b) Protect body against infections

From lymphatic vessels, lymph eventually drains

into one of the 2 main channels :
a) Thoracic duct
b) Right lymphatic duct

 Thoracic duct
~ receive lymph fr left side of head, neck & chest,
left upper limb & ribs
~ empty its lymph into the left subclavian vein
Right lymphatic duct
~ receive lymph fr the right arm, shoulder & right
side of head & neck
~ empty its lymph into the right subclavian vein

The lymph is drained back into the blood.

Lymphatic system ~ no pump to move the
lymph through the lymphatic vessels.

Lymph moves to subclavian veins with the help

of :
one-way valves (along lymphatic vessels)
Contractions of skeletal muscles
Intestinal movements
Changes in pressure during inhalation &
exhalation

a)
b)
c)
d)

Importance of Interstitial Fluid

Functions of
Lymphatic System

 Returns excess interstitial fluid back into the

blood.
Transport fatty acids, glycerol & vit. ADEK fr small
intestine to bloodstream
Transport enzymes & hormones.
Transport cholesterol through blood circulatory
system.
Lymph nodes filter bac & foreign particles.
Defence body by exposing bac. & viruses to white
blood cells

The role of
Lymphatic System
in transport

 Lymphatic system return the excess interstitial

fluid back to the bloodstream
If the excess fluid is not returned to the
bloodstream, the body tissues become swollen
(too much fluid).
Excess accumulation of interstitial fluid in the
spaces between the cells results in oedema
Oedema may caused by a blocked lymphatic
vessel

Compare & Contrast

Blood Plasma,
Interstitial Fluid &
Lymph

Similarities
Watery liquid
Transport gases, nutrients & waste
products

Differences
Blood Plasma

Interstitial Fluid

Lymph

Inside blood
vessels

In the intercellular
spaces

Inside the lymphatic

vessels

Plasma &
cellular
components

Plasma without
plasma proteins,
erythrocytes &
platelets

Plasma without plasma

proteins, erythrocytes &
platelets
More fatty substances
Large no. of
lymphocytes produced by
lymph nodes

Oxygenated

Oxygenated

Deoxygenated

Low lipid content Low lipid content

High lipid content

Role of Circulatory
System in the Bodys
Defense Mechanism

3 lines of defense mechanism in the

body :
a) First line of defense
b) Second line of defense
c) Third line of defense

a) First line of defence

Skin, tears, saliva, hydrochloric acid, blood
clotting, mucous membrane
Is the bodys natural barriers
Function : prevent pathogens fr entering the body
Consists of physical & chemical barriers
Are non-specific defences (do not differentiate
one pathogen fr another)

Examples of first line of defense:

Skin has a dead keratinised layer which is

difficult to penetrate.

Mucous membrane secretes a protective layer

of mucus (Mucus in the nasal cavity & trachea
traps dust particles & microbial spores)

Tears secreted by tear glands & acidic sebum

secreted by sebaceous glands contain
lysozymes (destroy bac)

Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice kill

microorganism

b) Second line of defence

Pathogens that penetrates first line of defence

meet the second line of defence.
Non-specific

Involves 2 main types of phagocytic white blood

cells (neutrophils & monocytes)
a) During infections, neutrophils & monocytes
migrate to infected area
b) They squeezed through capillary walls into
interstitial fluid

 Process of phagocytosis :
a)The phagocytic white blood cells (phagocyte)
are attracted by chemical produced by the
microorganisms (bacterium)
b) The phagocyte sticks to the pathogens (bac)
c) The phagocyte extends its pseudopodia to engulf
the pathogens to form a phagocytic vacuole.
d) Digestive enzymes (produced by phagocyte) are
secreted into the phagocytic vacuoles to destroy
& digest the pathogens.

 Some of the phagocytes may also be

destroyed by toxins produced by the
pathogens.
When there is an infection, the no of white
blood cells increases in the body to
destroy the pathogens & neutralize toxins.

c) Third line of defence

The third line of defence in the body is the

immune system.
The immune system is a specific defence.
It recognizes specific pathogens & cancer
cells.

 Lymphocytes
a) Are the white blood cells found in the lymph
nodes & in the blood circulatory system
b) Originate in the bone marrow & migrate to the
lymph nodes where they mature & continue to
multiply in large no.
c) Lymphocytes in the blood produce antibodies
(destroy bac & viruses).

 2 main types of lymphocytes:

a) B-lymphocytes
b) T-lymphocytes

B-lymphocytes ~ produce antibodies

T-lymphocytes ~ attack cells infected by
pathogens

Immunity, antigen, antibody &

immunization

Immunity is the ability of an organism to

resist infection.

An antigen
a) A foreign substance which stimulates the
body to produce a specific immune
response.
b) Are large molecules

An antibody

a) Is a protein produced by lymphocytes

b) Are highly specific (each type of antibody
can interact with one specific antigen only)
c) Help to destroy antigen in different ways :
neutralisation, agglutination,
precipitation, opsonisation & lysis

1. Neutralisation
-

Antibody neutralises the toxins produced by the

bacteria
Bind to a toxin molecule.
Prevent the toxin molecule fr. attaching to a cell &
cause damage.

2. Agglutination
-

Antibodies cause the pathogens to clump

together.

This clumping makes it easy for the phagocytes

to capture & destroy pathogens.

3. Opsonisation
-

Opsonins (antibodies) binds to antigens to act

as markers so that antigens can be easily
recognised & destroy (by phagocytes)

4. Lysis
-

Lysins are antibodies that bind to the

antigens & cause the antigens to
rupture.

5. Precipitation
- Antibodies cause the precipitation of
soluble antigens to form immobile
precipitates.

 When a person recovers from an infection,

some lymphocytes remain as memory cells
for several months / years
The memory lymphocytes help to defend
the body against future infection by the
same type of antigen.
The body is immune against the particular
disease.

 Immunisation :
- Technique used to induce immunity to a
specific disease in humans by exposing the
individual to an antigen in order to stimulate
the production of specific antibodies.
- Achieved through injecting a vaccine that
contains killed or severely weakened antigen
into the body.

Various types of immunity

Types of immunity

Active
Natural

Passive
Artificial

Natural

Artificial

Active immunity occurs when body

produces its own antibodies to defend
against specific antigens.

2 types of active immunity:

a) Natural active immunity
b) Artificial active immunity

a) Natural active immunity

Occurs after an individual has recovered from
certain diseases.
Chickenpox, measles, mumps
The body can produce more antibodies rapidly
against future attack by the same type of invading
pathogen.
Individual gets them only once (because
lymphocytes remain in the body)

b) Artificial active immunity

Immunity achieved by vaccination / immunisation
Activate the immune response artificially (inject a
vaccine before the infection occurs)
A vaccine :
- Contains dead/weakened or non-virulent forms of
pathogens
- Stimulates body to produce antibodies
Memory cells are produced (to stimulate
production of specific antibodies when exposed to
the same antigen).

 Second booster dose is often needed - increase

the [ ] of antibodies to reach the immune level.
Vaccines are available for diseases : rubella,
mumps, measles, poliomyelitis
Eg : hepatitis B, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus
Vaccination produces artificially acquired active
immunity.
Active because the antibodies are produced by
the body itself
Artificial because it is obtained through
vaccination.

Passive immunity occurs when an individual

is given the antibodies to defend against the
pathogen.

2 types of passive immunity:

a) Natural passive immunity
b) Artificial passive immunity

a) Natural passive immunity

Obtain fr mother (through breast milk @

placenta)
a) Foetus receive maternal antibodies naturally fr
mother through placenta
b) Babies get immunity through breastfeeding
(antibodies are found in the first formed milk
called colostrum (rich in antibodies)

Antibodies provide temporary immunity for

the baby until its own immune system is fully
functional.

b) Artificial passive immunity

Is achieved when ready-made
antibody/antiserum is injected into the individual
Such antiserum is prepared fr the blood of
humans, cows or horses
- Contain specific antibody against disease
Serum contain specific antibodies against specific
diseases used to treat patients who are already
seriously ill (botulism, tetanus, snake bites,
rabies, hepatitis)

 The antibodies obtained fr other individuals give

quick temporary immunity
A short-lived immunity
Cannot last for several weeks/months (foreign
bodies break down in the body & are not
replaced).

Exercises :
Lists the differences between active
immunity & passive immunity

HIV
(Human
Immunodeficiency
Virus)

 HIV :
- Virus that attacks human immune
system
- Causes acquired immune
deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

Effects of HIV on bodys immune system

Person with AIDS is vulnerable to
various infections
Reason : Immune system cells are being
destroyed progressively
AIDS THE END STAGE of infection by
virus

 Once inside, the virus incorporates its genetic

material into the host cell.
HIV remain dormant in the host cell for many
years.
The immune system of the patient becomes
weakened & loss weight.
When active, HIV directs the host cell to produce
many new viruses. The new viruses are released
into the bloodstream where they travel to the
other helper T cells & destroy them.

 There is a decrease in the no of helper T cells.

The body becomes weak & defenseless.
Diseases pneumonia, thrush, skin cancer
(Kaposis sarcoma), non-Hodgkins lymphoma,
tuberculosis, meningitis
The immune system of AIDS patient cannot
control the replication of HIV. Death occurs.

Transmission of HIV
1. Sexual contact (HIV only survive in bodily fluid ~
semen, blood & vaginal fluid)
2. Infected pregnant woman - pass the HIV to baby
through placenta/mother milk.
3. Sharing of non-sterile needles & syringes by
drug users.
4. Blood transfusions (unscreened contaminated
blood)

Prevention :
1. Refrain fr promiscuous behavior
2. Use condom/sheath during sexual intercourse
3. Screen donated blood before using it
4. Use sterile needles & syringe
5. Carry out awareness campaigns educate the
public & children
6. Provide counseling to HIV positive patients do
not spread virus to the healthy people

Healthy
cardiovascular
system


a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

Cardiovascular system diseases :

Coronary thrombosis
Atherosclerosis
Arteriosclerosis
Hypertension
Heart attack
Stroke

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Factors contribute to cardiovascular diseases :

Diet high in fats & salt
Lack of exercise
Obesity
Smoking
Stress
High cholesterol levels
Deficiency in antioxidant vits & minerals

Dysfunctional conditions of the heart & blood

vessels that supply O2 to brain & heart. If O2
does not arrive, the organs & tissues will die

Heart attack, stroke, hypertension,

atherosclerosis, thrombosis, embolism, angina,
arrhythmia

Atherosclerosis refers to formation &

hardening of fatty plaques on the inner
surfaces of arteries.

Lowest body mass =

18.5 X ____m X ____m
Highest body mass =
24.9 X ____m X ____m

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

Heart attack blockage in the coronary

arteries
Stroke blockage in the cerebral arteries
Risk factors include:
High level of cholesterol (diet rich in saturated
fats & cholesterol)
Family history
Age (older people more risk)
Obesity
Cigarette smoker (atherosclerosis &
thrombosis)
Sedentary lifestyle (poor blood circulation)


a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

Suitable ways to maintain :

Limit intake of high cholesterol foods
Limit total fat & sodium intake
Eat more soluble-fibre foods, vegetables
& fruits
Include omega-3 fatty acids in diet
No smoking
Moderate exercise
Rest & relax
Maintain healthy weight

Fill in the blanks

1. _____ are important in blood clotting.
2. Under normal conditions, _____ prevent
blood flowing in blood vessels from
clotting.
3. _____ is the formation of a clot inside a blood
vessel. The clot is called ______.
4. A clot formed in the coronary artery causes
a ______.

5.

______ is a hereditary disease where the

affected person lacks certain clotting factors in
his blood.

During blood clotting, activators called

thromboplastin, together with _____ and
_____ convert ______ to ______.

Thrombin catalyses the conversion of the

soluble protein ______ in blood plasma into
insoluble ______.

______ forms a meshwork of fibres over the

wound trapping red blood cells & seals the
wound.

Platelets
Calcium ions
Fibrinogen
Vitamin k
Fibrin
Platelets
Thrombosis

heart attack
haemophilia
prothrombin
thrombin
fibrin
thrombus

Fill in the blanks

1. _____ fills the spaces between the cells &
constantly bathes the cell.
2. _____ stores lymphocytes which protect
the body against infections.
3. The _____ which is located on the left side of
the abdomen & near the stomach, filters the
blood & destroys old blood cells.
4. The 2 lymphatic ducts are the _____ & the
_____.

5. The thoracic duct empties the lymph into the

____ while the right lymphatic duct empties the
lymph into _____.
6. An excessive accumulation of interstitial
fluid in the spaces between the cells leads
to _____.
7. State 2 functions of the lymphatic system in
human
a) _______________
b) _______________

8. _____ is the lymph capillary that transports

lipids & fat soluble vitamins into the
bloodstream.
9. _____ is a lymphatic disease caused by a
parasitic roundworm.
10. Interstitial fluid does not contain ____, _____ &
platelets.

Spleen
Interstitial fluid
Lymph node
Plasma proteins
Left subclavian vein Oedema
Thoracic duct
lacteal
Right subclavian vein
Elephantiasis
Eryhtrocytes

Fill in the blanks

1. The first line of defence consists of _____ &
____ barriers that prevent pathogens from
entering the body.
2. In the second line of defence, phagocytes
carry out _____. _____ & _____ are 2 types
of phagocytes in the human body.
3. _____ are proteins found on the outer
surface of an invading microorganism.
_____ are proteins released by
lymphocytes into the blood plasma.

4.

The 4 types of mechanisms used by antibodies to

destroy antigens are _____, _____, _____ & _____.

5.

_____ are antibodies that bind to antigens to act as

markers so that antigens can be easily recognised &
destroyed by

6.
Types of immunity
passive immunity

7. Artificially acquired active immunity is obtained

through _____.
8. _____ is obtained through the injection of a
serum which contains specific antibodies to the
person who needs the antibodies.
9. State 3 ways to prevent AIDS.
a) ____________________
b) ____________________
c) ____________________

Opsonins
antigens
Neutralisation
physical
Phagocytosis
chemical
Opsonisation
neutrophils
Monocytes
lysis
Antibodies
agglutination
Vaccination
Artificially acquired passive immunity

Fill in the blanks

1. State 2 diseases related to the cardiovascular
system :
a) ____________
b) ____________
2. State 3 factors that contribute to
cardiovascular diseases :
a) ________________
b) ________________
c) ________________

3.

State 3 steps to reduce the risk of cardiovascular

diseases:

4.

_____ occurs if a clot forms in the coronary artery.

5.

Obesity could lead to ____ diseases.

6.

We should practise _____ to prevent

cardiovascular diseases.

7.

____ could lead to high blood pressure &

cardiovascular diseases.

8.

We can ____ the risk of getting cardiovascular

diseases by eating more ____ & fruits.

Vegetables
obesity
Stress
stop smoking
Heart attack
reduce
Lack of exercise
stroke
Stress
healthy lifestyle
Exercise regulary
Heart attack
Cardiovascular
Follow proper & healthy diet

Transport of
Substances in
Plants

Necessity for Transport of

Substances in Plants
H2O & mineral salts absorbed by the
roots have to be transported to all parts of
the plant.
Carbohydrates produced by leaves are
transported to the stem & roots for
respiration, growth & storage.

The Vascular Tissue in Plants

2 main vascular tissues in plants :

a) Xylem
b) Phloem

Vascular system is not involved in the

transport of O2 & CO2.

Movement of gases between the cells & their

environment is by diffusion.

Vascular System

Xylem
Transport H2O & mineral salts upward
from the roots to the stem & leaves
(against gravitational pull).
Give mechanical support for the plants.

Phloem
Transport organic substances (sucrose)
from the leaves or storage organs to the
other parts of the plant
(used in cellular metabolism or store in
storage organs)

Vascular Bundles of Dicot Plant

Structure of Vascular Tissues in the

Dicotyledonous stem, root & leaf :

Dicotyledonous root
Dicotyledonous leaf
Dicotyledonous stem

1) The stem

Epidermal layer :
maintain shape of the stem
Secrete waterproof cuticle (young plants)
Maybe absent & is replaced by bark (older plants)

Cortex layer :
- Made up of collenchyma cells
- Give support & flexibility

 Central region (vascular bundles & pith)

- Pith (for food storage in young plants, absent in
older plants)

Dicotyledonous plants :
Vascular bundles arranged in a ring around the pith
Xylem towards the inside of stem
Phloem on the outside
Cambium lies between xylem & phloem

Monocotyledonous plants :
- Vascular bundles scattered throughout the stem

Dicotyledonous stem

Monocotyledonous stem

Monocot Stem

2) The root
Epidermis layer (outermost layer)
- No waxy cuticles
- Absorb H2O & dissolved mineral ions
Root hair
- Grow fr specialised epidermal cells
- surface area for H2O absorption
Cortex
- Made up of parenchyma cells (store starch)

 Endodermis (single layer)

Pericycle :
- Consists of sclerenchyma tissue (give support for
the roots)
Vascular cylinder
- Consists of vascular tissue & pericycle

 Dicot plant :
- Xylem radiates fr the centre of vascular cylinder
(form star shape)
- Phloem fills the area between xylem

Monocot plant :
Vascular cylinder has pith (central core)
Pith contains parenchyma cells
Vascular tissues form ring around the pith (xylem
alternate with phloem)

Dicotyledonous root

Dicot Root

Dicot Root

Dicot Root

Dicot Root

Monocotyledonous root

Monocot Root

3) Leaf

Lamina
Petiole connect the blade to stem
Inside petiole xylem & phloem
Leaf veins
Xylem form upper part of vascular bundle in leaf
Phloem form lower part of vascular bundle

 Diagram oxford pg 346

Structure of Xylem
related to Transport

 Diagram pg 347

Xylem
tracheid

Xylem vessel element

 2 important functions of xylem:

a) Transport H2O & mineral ions/salts from
the root to the upper parts of the plant
b) Provide mechanical support for the plant

In flowering plants, xylem consists of

xylem vessels, tracheids, parenchyma
& fibres

Xylem vessels are adapted (for their

functions)

a) Are elongated cells arranged end to end

End walls of xylem vessels are open
Cells join end to end (form continuous hollow
tube)
Allow H2O flow upwards continuously fr 1
cell to another
b) Lumen of xylem vessels are narrow &
function like capillary tubes

c) Xylem walls are lignified with different thickness

Strong & hard, not collapsing due to upward pull of
H2O (transpiration)
The lignified walls increase the adhesion of H2O &
help the H2O to rise by capillarity
Prevent the entry of food, results in hollow & dead
vessels & tracheids (Mature vessels are dead cells
with no protoplasm to obstruct the flow)
d) Xylem vessels & tracheids perforated with pits
(holes)
Allow H2O & mineral salt pass sideways between
cells

Structure of Phloem related to

Transport

Phloem transport organic food substances

from the leaves to various plant parts.

Phloem tissue consists of

a) Sieve tubes
b) Companion cells

Sieve tubes

Transport organic substances

A cylindrical tube
Is a living cell
When mature, it has no nucleus & the
cytoplasm is pushed to the sides of the cell
The end walls of each cell are perforated
by pores to form sieve plates

Companion cells
Only found in flowering plant
Are adjacent & closely associated with the
sieve tube cells
Are normal cell with a nucleus, a large no.
of mitochondria (active metabolism)
Provides the sieve tube cells with
proteins, ATP & other nutrients
(sucrose)

 The function of parenchyma ~

to store food substances

The function of the fibres ~

provide support

Transport of
Organic
Substances & H2O
in Plants

Transport of Organic Substances in

Plants

Translocation
Is the transport of dissolved organic food
substances by the phloem
Organic substances in the phloem can be
transported upwards & downwards

The importance of translocation :

a) Ensure a plants survival
b) Organic food molecules can be transported

Transport of H2O in Plants

Transpiration
Is the loss of H2O as water vapour from the
living plants to the atmosphere due to
evaporation
Occurs mainly during the day (when the stomata
are opened)
The loss of H2O replaced by the absorption of
H2O from the soil by the plant roots


a)
b)
c)

3 main sites of transpiration:

Stomata 90% of transpiration
Cuticle 10% of transpiration
Lenticels small amount of H2O are lost
through lenticels

Only 1 % of this H2O is used by plant cells for

photosynthesis. 99% evaporates from the
leaves through transpiration.

Importance of transpiration
Absorb & transport H2O & mineral ions
Give cooling effect in plants
Supply H2O to all plant cells ~ for metabolism
process
Prevent wilting through maintaining cell turgidity

Process of Transpiration
1. H2O on external surfaces evaporates.
2. Air spaces in mesophyll cells is saturated with
water vapour.
3. Air in atmosphere is less saturated.
4. [ H2O vapour] in atmosphere < [ H2O vapour] in
air space.
5. Hence, H2O vapour in air spaces evaporates &
diffuses fr plant cells through stomata.
6. Air movement carry H2O vapour fr stomata.

7. Mesophyll cells become hypertonic to adjacent

cell (loss H2O)
8. H2O fr adjacent cells diffuses into mesophyll
cells (osmosis)
9. Eventually, H2O is drawn fr xylem vessels in
veins
10. A pulling force is created transpirational pull
(pull H2O up xylem vessels) as a results of
evaporation of H2O vapour fr mesophyll cells

External Condition that affect the Rate of

Transpiration
1. Light intensity

Light intensity increased, rate of

transpiration of a plant increases

Light stimulate the opening of stomata

Stomata open wider, more H2O

evaporates through the stomata

2. Temperature
A rise in temp increases the kinetic energy
of H2O molecules, therefore increase the
rate of transpiration
Increase the rate of evaporation of H 2O fr
the surface of mesophyll cells
Rate of diffusion of H2O through the
stomata also increase

3. Relative Humidity
High humidity surrounding the leaves
reduces the evaporation of H2O from the
stomata
Slow down the transpiration
Rise in temp lowers the relative humidity
of the surrounding air, thus increases the
rate of transpiration

4. Air movement
A faster air movement helps to remove the H2O
vapour
Air movement increases the [ ] gradient between
the H2O vapour in the leaf & outside the leaf
The faster the air movement, the greater the rate
of transpiration
When the air is still, transpiration rate decreases
or stops altogether

The Movement of
H2O from the soil
to the leaves

The movement of H2O from the roots to

the leaves is assisted by :

a) Root pressure
b) Capillary action
c) Transpirational pull

Leaf

a) Root Pressure
If the stem is cut just above the ground level, an
amount of sap (H2O ) will exude from the cut .
A force pushing H2O up the stem from the roots.
The force is called root pressure.
Root pressure is the result of an active process
in which energy from ATP is used.

 Root pressure causes H2O to move upward.

Root pressure is insufficient to overcome the
force of gravity to push H2O upwards to the max.
height of tree
The H2O moves too slowly to account for the
rapid transport of minerals from the roots to the
leaves.
Hence, the upward movement of H2O is helped
by the adhesive & cohesive of the H2O
molecules

 Cohesion the force of attraction between the

same molecules
Adhesion the force of attraction between
different molecules
In plants, H2O molecules will adhere to the walls
of xylem vessels. This can help to support a
considerable mass of H2O .
Cohesion & adhesion are demonstrated by the
phenomenon of capillarity

b) Capillary Action

Capillarity in the narrow xylem vessels

is driven by cohesion & adhesion of
H2O :

a) H2O molecules adhere to one another by

cohesive forces
b) H2O molecules adhere to the walls of
xylem vessels by adhesive forces

 Capillarity helps to draw H2O up the plant.

The narrow diameter of xylem vessels
increases the force generated by
capillarity.
Capillarity action holds the H2O column
together in the capillary-sized xylem
vessels.

c) Transpiration Pull
Happens when transpiration occurs
H2O evaporates from the leaves, creates a
tension which pulls a continuous column
of H2O up from the roots (because of
cohesive properties of H2O )
This passive pulling force ~ known as
transpirational pull

 Transpirational pull draws H2O from the

xylem in the leaves & stem, & eventually
from the xylem in the roots.
As H2O is pulled upwards, the cohesion
of H2O molecules together (prevent H2O
column in the xylem from breaking apart
as it is pulled upwards)

 At the same time, the strong adhesion of

H2O molecules to the walls of the xylem
vessels & tracheids (prevent gravity from
pulling the H2O down the column)

Summary :
Plants control their H2O loss by opening
& closing of stomata.
When the guard cells become turgid, the
stomata open.
When the guard cells become flaccid, the
stomata close.