Water Cycle

Water
Physical Properties of water
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Physical State
Surface Tension
Specific Gravity
Viscosity
Conductivity

Physical State
Solid
When water is solid State, as ice. The molecules are
bonded to each other in a solid crystalline structure. The
structure is six sided, with each molecule of water is
connected to four others with hydrogen bonds. Because
of the way the crystal is arranged, there is actually more
empty space between the molecules than is in liquid
water, so ice is less dense. That is why ice floats. The
latent heat of fusion (Ice to water) is 80 calories per gram
of ice.

Physical State
Liquid
When the water is in Liquid state, some of molecules bond
to each other with hydrogen bonds. The bonds break and
re-form continually.
Liquid evaporates and changes to gas (vapors). Energy is
required to change from solid to gas. If the water is at a
temperature of 100 C (that is boiling Point) it take an
additional 540 calories of heat to convert one gram of water
to gas state.

Physical state
Gas
When the water is in vapor state, as a gas, the water
molecules are not bonded each other. They float around a
single molecule.
To get the molecule of water vapor to become liquid again,
we have to take the energy away, that is, we have to cool it
down so that it condenses( condensation is the change from
vapor state to the liquid state). When water condenses, it
releases latent latent heat.

Physical State
Surface tension
Surface tension is an effect within the surface layer of a
liquid that causes the layer to behave as an elastic sheet.
This effect allows insect (such as water strider) to walk on
water.

Physical State
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is relative
density of water with
respect to density of
water at 4 C
Water density changes
with temperature and
slightly with pressure.
Water Specific gravity at
4C is 1.0. Its value
decreases as the water

Physical state (Viscosity)

Temperatur
e

Dynamic
Viscosity

10

1.307

20

1.002

30

0.798

40

0.663

50

0.547

60

0.467

70

0.404

80

0.355

90

0.315

100

0.282

In any flow, layers moves

at different velocities and
the fluid viscosity arises
from the shear stress
between the layers that
ultimately opposes any
applied force.
There are two type of
viscosity
Absolute or dynamic and
kinematic. Fluid viscosity
varies with temperature.

Physical properties (TDS)

TDS Total dissolved Solids
Total dissolved solids is measured by evaporating known quantity of and
then dried at 180 oC . At this temperature Bicarbonate dissociate and
liberate CO2 and water.

Ca(CO3)2 ---------------- CO2 + H2O

To correct the results amount of liberated constitute has to be added in the results.
Evaporation method cannot be conducted at site, since it required sophisticated
equipments.

Physical properties
Conductivity
Conductivity is the ability to conduct electric current in a
solution. Two plates (cells) are placed in the sample, a potential
is applied across the plate and current is measured. Conductivity
is measured from the voltage and current value according to
ohms law
G=1/R = Amp/Volt
Since the charge on ions facilitates the conductance of electric
current, the conductivity is proportional to its ion concentration.
The area of plates and the distance in plates determines the
value of cell constant. Cell constant 0.1 measure conductivity 0.5
400 S, cell constant 1.0 in range 10 2000 S while cell
constant 10 in range 1000 200,000 S.
03/29/15

10

Physical Properties
Total dissolved Solids &
Conductivity
Relationship between
conductivity and TDS varies
and depends upon
Ionic concentration
Types of ions
Water temperature

Physical properties
Ionic Concentration
Since conductivity of solution
depends upon the ionic mobility,
as the concentration of Sodium
chloride increases the ionic
mobility decreases. The ratio
conductivity/TDS (Factor)
increases.

Conductivity
At 25 C

TDS NaCl

Factor

84 uS
447 uS
1413 uS
1500 uS
8974 uS
12880 uS
15000 uS
80 mS

38
215.5
215
702.1
737.1
4487
7230
8532
48384

0. 4755
0.4822
0.4969
0.4914
0.5000
0.5513
0.5688
0.6048

Physical Properties
Types of ions
Since Conductivity depends
upon the ionic mobility as well
size and the charge on the
ions, therefore at same
concentration of salts
different salts have different
conductivities

Componen
t
HCl
HNO3
H2SO4
H3PO4
NaOH
KOH
NH4 OH
NaCl
Na2SO4
Na2CO3
NaHCO3
KCl

Infinite
dilution
426
421
430
419
248
271
271
126
130
124
96
150

Concentrati
on 100
meq/lit
392
386
317
104
221
246
3.9
107
90
86.3
76
129

Physical properties
Temperature effect on conductivity

Chemical properties
pH
In water (H2O) one of the hydrogen atom jumps over one of the
pairs of unshared electrons to another water molecule (leaving its
electron behind). Thus ions of H3O+ (hydronium ion) and OH- ion
(hydroxide ions) are formed.
2 H2O
H3O+ + OHIn one liter of water there will be 0.0000001 M each of H 3O+ (often
written as H+) and of OH present, For easy and in simplest form.
The ionic concentration can be written as 1x10 -7. If we write it in
logarithm for it would be log [H+] = 7. log [pH+] is known as pH.

WATER SOURCES
1.WELL WATER
a. SHALLOW WELLS
b. DEEP WELLS
2.SURFACE WATER
a. RIVER
b. LAKE
3.SEA WATER
a. OPEN SEA INTAKE
b. BEACH WELLS

WATER CHEMISTRY
Water Composition Suspended Impurities
- Suspended Solids
- Organics Compounds
- Iron
- Slit
- Bacteria

WATER CHEMISTRY
Water Composition Dissolved Impurities
Cations
- Calcium (Ca)
- Magnesium (Mg)
- Sodium (Na)
- Potassium (K)
- Barium (Ba)
- Strontium (Sr)

WATER CHEMISTRY
Anions
- Carbonate (CO3)
- Bicarbonate (HCO3)
- Sulphate (SO4)
- Nitrate (NO3)
- Nitrite (NO2)
- Chloride (Cl)
- Floride (F)
- Silica (Si)

WATER CLASSIFICATIONS BASED

ON TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
(TDS)
FRESH
< 1000 ppm
BRACKISH
1000-5000 ppm
HIGLLY BRACKISH 5000-15000 ppm
SALINE
15000-30000 ppm
SEA WATER
30000-40000 ppm
BRINE
40000-300000 ppm

WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

Clarification / Sedimentation
Chlorination
Filtration
Lime Soda Softening
Softening Through Ion Exchange
Demineralization
De-Alkalizers
Reverse Osmosis

CLARIFICATION / SEDIMENTATION

For the removal high suspended solids,

above 50 mg/l. Specially suitable for
canal / river (surface water treatment).

FILTERATION

For the removal of suspended solids (TDS

<50 ppm)
Different Types of filling media are used,
based on particular application.

FILTERATION MEDIA

Silica Sand
Gravel
Anthracite
Activated Carbon
Anthracite
Birm
Manganese Green
Hydrofilt

ACIDIFICATION
Lowers p H
Decreases Scaling Indices
Increases calcium sulfate scaling
No impact on TDS of feed water
Increases blow down rate

Predicted Water Analysis After Acid Injection

Locations
1

Shahkot Kurrianwala Area

After Acid Addition

Cooling Tower Basin

Elements

After Four Cycles Concentration

Units

Calcium

Ca++

CaCO3

190

190

190

751

Magnesium

Mg++

CaCO3

279

279

279

1103

Sodium

Na+

CaCO3

1085

1085

1085

4241

CaCO3

1554

1554

1554

6095

Total Cation
Bicarbonates

HCO3-

CaCO3

711

432

432

1672

Chloride

Cl-

CaCO3

422

417

417

2792

Sulfate

SO4--

CaCO3

421

705

705

1631

Total Anion

CaCO3

1554

1554

1554

6095

Total Hardness

CaCO3

469

469

469

Carbonate Hardness

CaCO3

469

432

432

Non-Carbonate Hardness

CaCO3

37

37

-0.3

1.1

>2.6

711

432

432

711

7.8

6.5

7.95

8.2

2235

2235

2235

8390

Scaling Indices LSI

m Alkalinity
pH
Total Dissolved Solids

CaCO3
pH scale
mg/lit.

LIME SODA SOFTENING

Removes hardness associated with
alkalinity
Precipitation of calcium and
magnesium carbonate produces huge
volume of sludge
Sludge disposal causes problem
Decreases the total dissolved solids
Blow down rate decreases

SOFTENING THROUGH ION

EXCHANGE

Removal of Calcium & Magnesium by

Sodium ions

Soft Water does not reduce total

dissolved Solids.

To some extent Iron removal

SOFTENING THROUGH ION

EXCHANGE
The softening of water by ion exchange
involves the replacement of calcium and
magnesium ions in water by an equivalent
number of sodium ions. This eliminates the
undesirable characteristics of hardness in
water, as sodium salts do not form scale. The
chemical reaction is as under:

SOFTENING THROUGH ION

EXCHANGE
Basic Ion Exchange Mechanism is as follows:

2RcSO3Na
+ Ca(HCO3)2 =
(Sodium
(Calcium
Exchange
Bicarbonate
Regenerated
in Raw Water)
Resin)

(RcSO3)2Ca
(Calcium
Exchange
Exhausted
Resin)

2NaHCO3
(Sodium
Bicarbonate
In Soft
Water)

SOFTENING THROUGH ION

EXCHANGE
The sodium ion exchanger contains only a finite
number of exchangeable sodium ions. This number
is known as the capacity of the resin. When this
capacity has been exhausted, i.e., sodium ions have
been replaced by calcium or magnesium,
regeneration of the resin back to sodium form
becomes necessary. Resin bed is regenerated with a
downward flow of brine. Later, resin bed is rinsed
free off brine. The chemical reaction is as under:

SOFTENING THROUGH ION

EXCHANGE
Regeneration of Resin through brine solution is as follows:
(RcSO3)2Mg,Ca
(Exhausted
Resin)

2NaCl

(Brine)

2RcSo3Na
(Regenerated
Resin)

MgCl2 , CaCl2
(Effluent)

DE-ALKALIZERS
Removes cations and associated

alkalinity from the water.

Degasifier is used for removal of
bicarbonate alkalinity
Effective for high alkalinity waters
TDS reduces equivalent to alkalinity.

DE-ALKALIZER
Basic Ion Exchange Mechanism is as
follows:
2RcSO3H

+ Ca(HCO3)2

(RcSO3)2Ca

(Sodium

(Ca, Mg, Na

(Ca, Mg, Na

Exchange
Regenerated
Resin)

Bicarbonates,
Chlorides &
Sulphates)

Exchange
Exhausted
Resin)

+ 2H2CO3, HCl, H2SO4

(Acid)

DEMINERALIZATION PLANT
Removal of complete or selective ions to
minimize total dissolved solids.

Feed Water TDS is limiting factor

TDS < 200 ppm Demin. Plant
TDS > 200 ppm R.O. Plant

DEMINERALIZATION PLANT

REVERSE OSMOSIS
Reverse Osmosis
Reverse Osmosis can be defined as the separation of
one component of a solution from another
component by mean of pressure exerted on a semipermeable membrane.
Reverse osmosis requires external pressure to
reverse natural osmotic flow. As pressure is applied
to the saline solution, water flows through the semipermeable membrane (see figure 3).

REVERSE OSMOSIS

REVERSE OSMOSIS
Feed
Solution which enters the system and is
pressurized.
Permeate
Solution which passes through the membrane
and is collected for use.
Reject
The percentage of dissolved material that
does not pass through membrane.

REVERSE OSMOSIS
Passage
The percentage of dissolved material that does
Pass Through the membrane

Recovery
The ratio of permeate rate to feed rate
Permeate Rate
Recovery (%)
= ------------------- 100
Feed Rate

CHEMICAL INJECTION SYSTEM

PRE & POST TREATMENT
GENERALLY AN ANTISCALANT MUST BE ADDED
TO THE FEEDWATER FOR PROPER REVRSE
OSMOSIS SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

ADDITION PRETREATMENT CHEMICAL INJECTION

SYSTEMS FOR CHLORINATION, DECHLORINATION
AND COAGULANT INJECTION

POST-TREATMENT INCLUDES CHLORINATION AND

pH ADJUSTMENT

REVERSING PROBLEM IN R.O.

CHEMICAL ATTACK
CHLORINE IS THE MOST COMMON AGENT TO CHEMICALLY
ATTACK AND DESTROY FREQUENTLY USED POLYAMIDE THINFILM MEMBRANES

ACTIVATED CARBON FILTERS ARE GENERALLY USED

IN SMALLER REVERSE OSMOSIS UNITS TO REMOVE
CHLORINE.

FOR

LARGER

UNITS,

DECHLORINATION

IS

ACCOMPLISHED EITHER BY AN UPSTREAM GRANULAR

AC BED OR BY INJECTION OF A SULFITE GENERATING
SO3 COMPOUND

REVERSING PROBLEM IN R.O.

FOULING
FOULING

RESULTS

WHEN

FEED

WATER

SUSPENDED

PARTICLES ARE DEPOSITED WITHIN AN REVERSE OSMOSIS

UNIT. THE MOST COMMON FOULING PARTICLES ARE

BACTERIA

ALUMINIUM

IRON

SILICA

REVERSING PROBLEMS IN R.O.

THE USEFUL LIFE OF REVERSE
ELEMENT IS REDUCED BY

SCALING

FOULING

CHEMICAL

OSMOSIS

MEMBRANE

SCALING
TWO MOST COMMON SCALANTS ARE

CALCIUM CARBONATE (LIMESTONE)

CALCIUM SULFATE (GYPSUM)

SCALANTS
CLEANING

ARE

EFFECTIVELY

HYDROCHLORIC ACID

CITRIC ACID

REMOVED

BY

CHEMICAL

SIX STEPS TO BETTER R.O.OPERATION

OBSERVE THESE PARAMETERS TO ENSURE A
SYSTEMS PEAK PERFORMANCE.
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)
FEED PRESSURE
FEED TEMPERATURE
FEED WATER pH
WATER DISINFECTION
IMPURITIES

WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

FOR PROCESS INDUSTRIES
1. Water for Cooling Towers & Heat Exchangers
2. Water for Processing Units
3. Water for Boilers

WATER FOR COOLING TOWERS &

HEAT EXCHANGERS
Fundamentals:
1. Air Quality affects Water Quality
2. Filteration
3. Contamination & Turbidity
4. Blow Down
5. Chemical Treatment
(Scale Preventation, Corrosion Control, Control of
Biological Growth, Foaming, Control of Suspended
Impurities)

PARAMETERS TO CONTROL FOR

COOLING TOWERS
Total Hardness
Total Alkalinity
Iron
Total Bacteria Count / Sulfate Reducing Bacteria
pH
Silica
Total Dissolved Solids
Algae / Fungi

WATER FOR PROCESSING UNITS

High level of total hardness, alkalinity, chlorides and
iron in water increases the chemicals consumption
and affects the final quality of processed fabrics.
Water is also used in manufacturing pharmaceutical
products, preparation of injectable impulse and in
food industries.
The quality of water may vary from industry to
industry but treatment is required for every
application.

OVER VIEW OF APPLICATIONS

Impurities to Remove

Treatment Process

To remove hardness

Softening Unit based on

Ion Exchange

To reduce TDS

Reverse Osmosis / DeIonizer

To reduce Alkalinity

De-Alkalizer / Acidification

To remove temporary
hardness

Lime Treatment
(Softening)

WATER QAUALITY AT DIFFERENT LOCATION

Locations

Shahkot Khurianwala Area

4. Mirpur Mathelo

Raiwind Manga Mandi Area

5. Rawalpindi Area

Nishatabad Area Faisalabad

Elements

Units

Calcium

Ca++

CaCO3

190

45

138

210

150

Magnesium

Mg++

CaCO3

279

13

346

180

150

Sodium

Na+

CaCO3

1085

706

3199

859

370

CaCO3

1554

764

3683

1249

670

Total Cation
Bicarbonates

HCO3-

CaCO3

711

250

775

400

196

Chloride

Cl-

CaCO3

421

493

1754

465

282

Sulfate

SO4--

CaCO3

422

21

1154

384

192

Total Anion

CaCO3

1554

764

3683

1249

670

Total Hardness

CaCO3

469

58

482

390

300

Carbonate Hardness

CaCO3

469

58

482

390

104

CaCO3

10

196

m Alkalinity

CaCO3

711

250

775

400

196

Sodium Alkalinity

CaCO3

242

192

293

10

7.8

7.85

7.9

7.5

7.9

Non Carbonate Hardness

pH

pH scale

INTERPRETATION OF WATER
ANALYSIS

PREDICATED TREATED WATER ANALYSIS (DE-ALKALIZER & WATER SOFTENING)

Locations

Shahkot Khurianwala Area

4. After Softner

After De-Alkalizer

5. 50% blend of (3 & 4)

After De Gasifier

Elements

Units

Calcium

Ca++

CaCO3

190

Magnesium

Mg++

CaCO3

279

Sodium

Na+

CaCO3

1085

1549

774

Hydrogen

H+

CaCO3

1554

863

Total Cation

87

CaCO3

1554

1554

863

1554

863

Bicarbonates

HCO3-

CaCO3

711

711

<20

711

20

Chloride

Cl-

CaCO3

421

421

421

421

421

Sulfate

SO4--

CaCO3

422

422

422

422

422

Total Anion

CaCO3

1554

1554

863

1554

863

Total Hardness

CaCO3

469

Carbonate Hardness

CaCO3

469

m Alkalinity

CaCO3

711

<20

711

<20

Sodium Alkalinity

CaCO3

242
<2

7.8

<5.0

pH

pH scale

7.8

PREDICTED TREATED WATER ANALYSIS (AFTER LIME SODA SOFTENING)

Locations

Rawalpindi Area

After Lime Soda Softening

After Acid Addition

Elements

Units

Calcium

Ca++

CaCO3

150

13

13

Magnesium

Mg++

CaCO3

150

12

12

Sodium

Na+

CaCO3

370

474

474

CaCO3

670

499

499

Total Cation
Bicarbonates

HCO3-

CaCO3

196

25

10

Chloride

Cl-

CaCO3

282

282

282

Sulfate

SO4--

CaCO3

192

192

207

Total Anion

CaCO3

670

499

499

Total Hardness

CaCO3

300

25

25

Carbonate Hardness

CaCO3

104

25

10

Non-Carbonate Hardness

CaCO3

196

15

m Alkalinity

CaCO3

196
7.9

10

<8.0

872

640

640

pH
Total Dissolved Solids

pH scale
mg/lit.

Predicted RO Water Analysis (85 % Conversion)

Locations

Rawalpindi Area

After Acid Addition

Product Water

Elements

Concentrate

Units

Calcium

Ca++

CaCO3

150

150

0.71

973

Magnesium

Mg++

CaCO3

150

150

0.71

973

Sodium

Na+

CaCO3

370

370

8.7

2060

CaCO3

670

670

10.12

4006

Total Cation
Bicarbonates

HCO3-

CaCO3

197

177

3.87

1070

Chloride

Cl-

CaCO3

239

239

5.6

1529

Sulfate

SO4--

CaCO3

234

254

0.53

1407

Total Anion

CaCO3

670

670

10.12

4006

Total Hardness

CaCO3

300

300

1.5

1946

Carbonate Hardness

CaCO3

197

134

2.37

1058

Non-Carbonate Hardness

CaCO3

103

166

1.5

888

m Alkalinity

CaCO3
7.9

5.37

7.81

860

852

14

5475

pH
Total Dissolved Solids

pH scale
mg/lit.

GLOSSARY
Activated Carbon
Granulated activated carbon used to remove tastes, odor, chlorine,
chloramines and some organics from water
Aeration
The process of adding air to the water supply for the purpose of
oxidizing or mixing
Alkalinity
Capacity for neutralizing acid, usually due to presence of bicarbonate
or carbonate ions. Hydroxide, borate, silicate, and phosphate ions may
contribute to alkalinity in treated waters

GLOSSARY
Anion
Negatively charged ion in a solution
Aquifer
Natural, underground porous formation where mineralbearing water flows or is stored. Source of well water
ASTM
Stands for 'American Society for Testing and Materials'
Backwash
Reversal of water or solution's flow through a filtration
system. Backwash process is commonly used in sand and
multi-media filters

GLOSSARY
Bacteria

Microscopic single-celled organisms reproducing by

fission or by spores. Typically round, rod-like spiral shaped
bodies, often aggregated into colonies or mobile by means
of flagella. Commonly found in soil, water, organic matter,
and in the bodies of plants and animals. Often symbiotic in
man, but sometimes pathogenic

Blowdown

In reference to boiler & cooling tower technology, the

purge from the system of a small portion of water
concentrated with contaminants in order to maintain the
level of dissolved and suspended solids in the system
below a certain maximum level

BOD

Biochemical Oxygen Demand a measure of the amount

of oxygen required for the biochemical degradation of
organic material in a water sample

GLOSSARY
Bottled water

Water (usually treated or purified) sold in

containers for drinking and domestic use
Carbonate hardness

The hardness in water caused by carbonates and

bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium
Cartridge filter

A filter device, usually disposable. For a detailed

description see end of this booklet

GLOSSARY
Cation
A positively charged ion in a solution
Chlorine
A chemical used as bleaching, oxidizing or disinfecting agent in
water purification
Clarification
Filtration of liquids containing small quantities of solids

Coagulant
Chemical added to water to cause formation of flocs that
adsorb, entrap or otherwise bring together suspended
matter defined as colloidal. Used to remove turbidity,
bacteria, color and other finely divided matter from water
COD
Chemical Oxygen Demand a measure of the oxygen
required to oxidize chemicals contained in a sample

GLOSSARY
Colloid
A substance of fine particle size, typically in the range of 0.1 to 0.001
microns, suspended in liquid or air. Such fine particles cannot
normally be filtered out but are removed by reverse osmosis,
distillation, or ultrafiltration process
Colloids
Suspension of submicron particles in a continuous fluid medium that
will not settle out of the medium
Concentration
The amount of material contained in a unit volume of fluid. The term is
also used for the process of increasing the dissolved material per unit
volume
Conductivity
The ability of water to transmit electricity, the property being the
inverse of resisistivity
Cross flow membrane filtration
A separation of components of a fluid by semi-permeable membranes
by application of pressure and parallel flow to the membrane surface;
processes include reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and
microfiltration

GLOSSARY
Deionization
Process utilizing ion exchange resins, which remove ionized salts
from water to obtain soft water. The process typically removes salts
only and not any organics, virus or bacteria
Delta P
Term donating the pressure drop across a filter
Demineralization
The process of removing minerals from water, usually by deionization,
reverse osmosis, or distillation
Differential pressure (pressure drop)
The difference in pressure between the upstream and downstream
sides of a filter
Difference in pressure between two points in a system. In filters, this is
usually measured between the inlet and outlet of the filter housing,
and is a determining factor of filter service life.

GLOSSARY
Dissolved solids
These are the residual materials remaining after evaporating the water
or solution to a dry state
Effective area
The total area of the medium exposed to flow in a filter element
Element
Any structural part of the filter on which the membrane or media is
supported

GLOSSARY
Feed water
Incoming water supply prior to any treatment
Filtration rate
The volume of liquid that passes through a given filter in a
specified time
Hardness
The concentration of calcium and magnesium salts in water.
Gives rise to scale formation and reacts with soap

GLOSSARY
Ion
An atom or molecule, which has lost or gained one or more
electrons, thereby acquiring a net electric charge
Ion Exchange
A process in which ions are preferentially adsorbed from a
solution for equivalently charged ions attached to solid
resin particles
LSI
Langelier Saturation Index a calculation that predicts
calcium carbonate precipitation under a specific condition,
temperature, pH, TDS, hardness, and alkalinity
Membrane
A polymer film containing highly controlled distribution of
pores. They serve as a barrier permitting the passage of
materials only up to a certain size or character. Membranes
are used as the separation device in reverse osmosis,
ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and microfiltration

GLOSSARY
Micron
Metric unit of measurement equivalent to 10-6 meters
or one millionth of a meter (mictometer). The naked
human eye can see particles of 20 microns and above.
Particles of size 0.03 to 19 microns can be seen with a
microscope and those of 0.001 to 0.2 microns only
with an electron microscope
Mixed-bed
An ion exchange tank consisting of both cation and
anion resin mixed together. It is used to polish water
already treated by two bed softening tanks or reverse
osmosis. Mixed-bed gives the most complete
deionization of water up to 18.3 megaohm/cm
resistivity

GLOSSARY
Nanofiltration (NF)
Crossflow membrane separation process for removing
particles in the 250 to 1000 molecular weight range,
selected salts and most organics. Nanofiltration is often
used for water softening and require lower driving pressure
than RO
NTU
Nephelometeric Turbidity Units a measurement obtained
by passing a light beam through a low-turbidity water
sample with a nephelometer
Osmotic pressure
It is the measurement of the potential energy difference
between solutions on either side of a semi permeable
membrane
Oxidation
A process by which electrons are lost to an oxidizing agent
in order to increase a molecule or ion in positive valence

GLOSSARY
Permeability
The property of a filter medium that permits a fluid to pass through under a pressure
differential.
Permeable
A media which allows some material to pass through.

Permeate
That portion of the feed stream, which passes through a membrane, leaving behind a more
concentrated stream.

Permeator

A hollow fibre membrane element consisting of thousands of hollow fibres .

pH
It is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. The range is from 0 to 14,
with 7 as neutral, 0 to less than 7 as acidic, and 7 to 14 as alkaline.

Porosity
A measure of the open area of a filter medium. Sometimes expressed as a void volume.

GLOSSARY
PPB
Parts per Billion approx. equivalent to micrograms per liter
PPM
Parts per Million approx. equivalent to milligrams per liter
PPT
Parts per Trillion approx. equivalent to nanograms per liter
PSI
Pounds per square inch pressure
PSIG
Pounds per square inch gauge

GLOSSARY
Regeneration
The displacement from the ion exchange resin of the ions removed
from the process water. In the water softening process, when most of
the sodium ions have been replaced by hardness ions, the resin is
exhausted and must be regenerated. Regeneration is achieved by
passing a concentrated NaCl solution through the resin tanks,
replacing the hardness ions with sodium ions. The regeneration
process can be repeated indefinitely without damage to the resin
provided the incoming water has been properly filtered and by
following the correct procedure
Rejection
In a membrane system is expressed as a percent of the total presence
of those contaminants that are larger than the membrane's pore size
and are retained by it or repelled by an electrical charge
Resins (ion exchange)
They consist of polymer beads used in the ion exchange process to
remove dissolved salts from water

GLOSSARY
Reverse osmosis (RO)

Is the separation of one component of a solution from another

component by flowing the feed stream under pressure across a
semi permeable membrane to provide a purified stream of
water. RO removes most organic compounds and up to 99% of
all ions, viruses, bacteria and pyrogens. It is a more energy
efficient process compared to phase change processes
(distillation)

GLOSSARY
Scaling
Is the buildup of precipitated salts on such surfaces as boiler
condensate tubes, heat exchangers, pipes, tanks, etc
SDI
Silt Density Index a test used to measure the level of suspended
solids in feed water that tend to foul a reverse osmosis system. The
measurement is the rate at which a 0.45-micron filter will plug with
particulate material in the source water
Semi permeable
A membrane, which allows a solvent such as water to pass through,
while rejecting certain dissolved solids or colloidal substances
Specific gravity
Ratio of mass of a solid or liquid to the mass of an equal volume of
distilled water, or of a gas to an equal volume of air under prescribed
temperature and pressure

GLOSSARY
Suspended solids
Solid organic and inorganic particles that are held in suspension in
water or a solution.
Expressed in weight or volume
TDS
Total Dissolved Solids a quantity determined by drying the water
sample and weighing the residue. In the field, TDS is commonly
measured by a conductivity meter; however this measurement is
only an approximation
Turbidity
A suspension of fine inorganic or organic particles and other
suspended impurities in water that cause cloudiness and will not
readily settle due to small particle size. Generally to remove
turbidity, the water is treated (by flocculation) and then filtered

GLOSSARY
Ultra-filtration (UF)
It is similar to RO & NF, but is defined as cross flow process that
does not reject ions. UF membranes have a larger pore size and
therefore require lower operating pressures in 10 to 100 psig range.
UF removes larger organics, colloids, bacteria, and pyrogens while
allowing most ions and small organics to pass through
Ultraviolet (UV)
Light with a wavelength of 254 nm used to kill or inactivate
pathogens like coliform bacteria and legionella. It disinfects water
without adding any chemicals or creating any new compounds, nor
does it change the taste or odor of water
Water hammer
Pressure surge produced when the linear flow of non-compressible
fluid is rapidly interrupted by devices such as fast-acting valves

Engro
Design data

P & I D of ECPL

Plant operation & Control

Automatic control through level of

product water Tank.

Manual control by selecting switches
in the field.

Plant Start Up ,Shut Down

conditions & Set Points
pH
pH< 8.0 plant in normal operation.
pH > 8.0 dump valve will open, high
pH

alarm will initiate.