Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Translation (NAT)
1
Overview
Motivation
End-to-end principle
Role of IP addresses
2
History
Early 1990s
IPv4Address consumption concern
Two approaches
• IPv6 and NAT
NATs were initially intended to allow devices to
share an address pool dynamically
First
RFC about NAT in 1994
NAT vs. DHCP?
3
Motivation
DSL and cable modem business model
Not simultaneous access, no servers
ISP wants to save money
In PSTNs, there is extension
Changing next higher ISP becomes easier
Even multi-homing
Security: Inbound traffic filtering
stateful firewall
4
End-to-end principle
RFC 1958: “An end-to-end protocol design
should not rely on the maintenance of state (i.e.,
information about the state of the end-to-end
communication) inside the network. Such state
should be maintained only in the endpoints, in
such a way that the state can only be destroyed
when the endpoint itself breaks (known as fate-
sharing). An immediate consequence of this is
that datagrams are better than classical virtual
circuits. The network's job is to transmit
datagrams as efficiently and flexibly as possible.
Everything else should be done at the fringes.”
5
Middle boxes
Middle box = “any intermediary Examples:
device performing functions other NATs
than the normal, standard SOCKS gateway
functions of an IP router on the IP tunnel endpoint
datagram path between a source
host and destination host”
Transport relay
L2, L3, L4, L7, …
Load balancers
Application firewalls
explicit vs. implicit
Transcoders (RFC 3234)
functional vs. optimizing
Proxies
routing vs. processing Caches
soft vs. hard state Modified DNS servers
fail-over vs. restart Anonymizers
6
Private Network
Private IP network is an IP network that is not
directly connected to the Internet
IP addresses in a private network can be
assigned arbitrarily.
Not registered and not guaranteed to be globally
unique
Generally, private networks use addresses
from the following experimental address
ranges (non-routable addresses):
10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255
7
Private Addresses
H1 H2 H3 H4
10.0.1.1 10.0.1.1
Private network 1 Private network 1
Internet
R1 128.195.4.119 128.143.71.21 R2
213.168.112.3
H5
8
Network Address Translation (NAT)
NAT is a router function where IP addresses (and
possibly port numbers) of IP datagrams are
replaced at the boundary of a private network
NAT is a method that enables hosts on private
networks to communicate with hosts on the Internet
NAT is run on routers that connect private networks
to the public Internet, to replace the IP address-port
pair of an IP packet with another IP address-port
pair.
Topology sensitive
• inside (private) vs. outside (public)
9
Basic operation of NAT
Private Internet
network
Private Public
Address Address
10.0.1.2 128.143.71.21
10
Main uses of NAT
Pooling of IP addresses
Supporting migration between
network service providers
IP masquerading
Load balancing of servers
11
Pooling of IP addresses
Scenario: Corporate network has many hosts but only
a small number of public IP addresses
NAT solution:
Corporate network is managed with a private address
space
NAT device, located at the boundary between the
corporate network and the public Internet, manages a
pool of public IP addresses
When a host from the corporate network sends an IP
datagram to a host in the public Internet, the NAT
device picks a public IP address from the address pool,
and binds this address to the private address of the host
12
Pooling of IP addresses
Private Internet
network
Private Public
Address Address
10.0.1.2
13
Supporting migration between network
service providers
Scenario: In CIDR, the IP addresses in a corporate network are
obtained from the service provider. Changing the service provider
requires changing all IP addresses in the network.
NAT solution:
Assign private addresses to the hosts of the corporate network
NAT device has static address translation entries which bind the
private address of a host to the public address.
Migration to a new network service provider merely requires an
update of the NAT device. The migration is not noticeable to the
hosts on the network.
Note:
The difference to the use of NAT with IP address pooling is that the
mapping of public and private IP addresses is static.
14
Supporting migration between network
service providers
Private Public
Address Address
128.143.71.21
10.0.1.2
128.195.4.120
15
IP masquerading
Also called: Network address and port translation
(NAPT)
Scenario: Single public IP address is mapped to
multiple hosts in a private network.
NAT solution:
Assign private addresses to the hosts of the corporate
network
NAT device modifies the port numbers for outgoing
traffic
16
IP masquerading
Private Public
Address Address
10.0.1.2/2001 128.143.71.21/2100
10.0.1.3/3020 128.143.71.21/4444
17
Load balancing of servers
Scenario: Balance the load on a set of identical
servers, which are accessible from a single IP
address
NAT solution:
Here, the servers are assigned private addresses
NAT device acts as a proxy for requests to the server
from the public network
The NAT device changes the destination IP address of
arriving packets to one of the private addresses for a
server
A sensible strategy for balancing the load of the servers
is to assign the addresses of the servers in a round-
robin fashion.
18
Load balancing of servers
Private network
Sou
r
Des ce
tina =1
tion 2
10.0.1.2 = 1 8.195. Source = 128.195.4.120
0.0. 4
S1 1.2 .120 Destination = 128.143.71.21
S2 20
.1
5.4
2 8.1 9
= 1 .0 .1.4
10.0.1.4 0
rce =1
n
Sou tinatio
Des Inside network Outside network
Private Public Public
Address Address Address
S3
10.0.1.2 128.143.71.21 128.195.4.120
10.0.1.4 128.143.71.21 213.168.12.3
19
Concerns about NAT
Performance:
Modifying the IP header by
changing the IP address
requires that NAT boxes
recalculate the IP header
checksum
Modifying port number requires
that NAT boxes recalculate
TCP checksum
Fragmentation
Care must be taken that a datagram that is fragmented before it
reaches the NAT device, is not assigned a different IP address or
different port numbers for each of the fragments.
20
Concerns about NAT
End-to-end connectivity:
NAT destroys universal end-to-end reachability of
hosts on the Internet.
A host in the public Internet often cannot initiate
communication to a host in a private network
• Hamper peer-to-peer applications
The problem is worse, when two hosts that are in
a private network need to communicate with each
other
Typically, the address-port mapping is maintained
soft-state (in minutes)
21
Concerns about NAT
IP address in application data:
Applications that carry IP addresses in the
payload of the application data generally do
not work across a private-public network
boundary.
Some NAT devices inspect the payload of
widely used application layer protocols and, if
an IP address is detected in the application-
layer header or the application payload,
translate the address according to the address
translation table.
22
NAT and FTP
FTP client FTP server
public address: public address:
128.143.72.21 128.195.4.120
H1 H2
PORT 128.143.72.21/1027
RETR myfile
23
NAT and FTP
Private network Internet
H1 H2
PORT 10.0.1.3/1027 PORT 128.143.72.21/1027
H1 H2
PASV PASV
26
NAPT Traversal
27
NAT types
Symmetric
Port restricted cone
Full cone
Hairpin
28
Symmetric NAT
30
(Address) Restricted-cone NAT
31
Port-restricted-cone NAT
32
Hairpin NAT
34
What is STUN? Who uses it?
35
What does it do?
STUN is a client-server protocol that “allows
entities behind a NAT to first discover the
presence of a NAT and the type of NAT,
and then to learn the addresses bindings
allocated by the NAT.”
In other words, it’s a means of discovering
the public IP and port numbers that a NAT
assigns to a node on a private LAN.
In addition, STUN does not require any
special network configuration and works
with a variety of existing networks, but not
all.
36 *http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3489
STUN and NAT terminology
37
A picture i worth 1000 words
38
How STUN generally works
A STUN Client sends a STUN request to a
STUN Server. The Client then waits for the
Server to send a STUN response
STUN client is typically embedded in application
STUN server has two IP addresses
39
The STUN Message
The following STUN attributes in the payload are
especially important:
MAPPED-ADDRESS : Found in STUN responses. It
contains the IP address and port number of the STUN
request. I.e., the public IP and port of the STUN
client.
CHANGE-REQUEST : Found in STUN requests. It
contains flags for the IP address and port number of
the server. If set, the client is asking the server to
send the response from a different IP and port. (We
will see why later)
CHANGED-ADDRESS – Found in STUN responses.
It contains the alternate IP address and port number
of the server due to CHANGE-REQUEST
40
NAT discovery (test 1)
To determine if a NAT router/firewall is
present, send a STUN request to the
server. Wait for a response and analyze it.
If the IP address and port number in the
MAPPED-ADDRESS attribute of the
payload in the STUN response equal the
local IP address and port number that it
bound to when sending the request, then
the client is NOT behind a NAT router.
Otherwise, it is behind a NAT router.
41
NAT discovery – Full Cone (test 2)
Full Cone NAT router – The client sets the
IP address and port number flags in the
CHANGE-REQUEST of the STUN request.
This causes the server to send the
response from the alternate IP and port
number.
Ifthe client receives the STUN response,
then the client is behind a full cone router.
Otherwise, it is behind one of the other three
NAT routers.
42
NAT discovery – Symmetric (test 3)
43
NAT discovery – Restricted (test 4)
Restricted NAT – The port flag in the
CHANGE-REQUEST attribute of the
request is set. This instructs the server to
send a response from a different port.
Ifthe response is received, it is behind a
restricted NAT router. If no response is
received, it is behind a port restricted NAT
router.
44
45
Limitations of STUN
Does not address incoming TCP connections.
STUNT and other proposals
Does not allow incoming UDP connections through a symmetric
NAT
STUN “is not a cure-all for the problems associated with NAT.”
“The problems in STUN have to do with the lack of standardized
behaviors and controls in NATs, which results in a proliferation of
devices whose behavior is highly unpredictable, extremely
variable, and uncontrollable. Ultimately, the solution is to make
the environment less hostile, and to introduce controls and
standardized behaviors into NAT. However, until such time as
that happens, STUN provides a good short term solution given
the terrible conditions under which it is forced to operate.”
46
NAT traversal
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
Other issues
Symmetric NATs
The first packet for hole punching will
be dropped
And the port number (for the other
peer) is changed from the one for the
server
Port prediction technique
• May not work
Nested NATs
60