Session 1 & 2

Introduction to Quantitative
Methods & Analysis

Introduction
Research is the process of finding solutions to a problem
after a thorough study and analysis of the situational
factors
Researchcan be defined as the search forknowledge,
or as any systematic investigation, with an open mind, to
establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems,
prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using
ascientific method.
The systematic and objective process of generating
information for aid in making management decisions
The function which links the consumer, the customer, and public
to the Problems through INFORMATION

Scientific Method
The
scientific
methodis
a
body
oftechniquesfor
investigatingphenomena,
acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and
integrating previous knowledge.
To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must
be based on empiricalandmeasurableevidence
subject to specific principles of reasoning.
The analysis and interpretation of empirical
evidence
(facts
from
observation
or
experimentation) to confirm or disprove prior
conceptions.

Research Types
Basic research
Applied research

Deductive and inductive

theory
Deductivism:
theory --> data
explicit hypothesis to be confirmed or rejected
quantitative research

Inductivism:
data --> theory
generalizable inferences from observations
qualitative research /grounded theory

Qualitative vs. Quantitative

Research
Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

Objective

To gain a qualitative
understanding of the
underlying reasons and
motivations

To quantify the data and

generalize the results from the
sample to the population of
interest

Sample

Small number of nonrepresentative cases

Large number of representative

cases

Data Collection

Unstructured

Structured

Data Analysis

Non-statistical

Statistical

Outcome

Develop an initial
understanding

Recommend a final course of

action

Quantitative research
measurement of variables
common research designs: surveys and experiments
numerical and statistical data
deductive theory testing
positivist epistemology
objectivist view of reality as external to internal actors

Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework represents your
beliefs on how certain phenomena (or
variables or concepts) are related to each
other (a model) and an explanation on
why you believe that these variables are
associated to each other (a theory).

Theoretical Framework

Basic steps:
Identify and label the variables
correctly
State the relationships among the
variables: formulate hypotheses
Explain how or why you expect
these relationships

Variables

Any concept or construct that varies or

changes in value

Main types of variables:

Dependent variable
Independent variable
Moderating variable
Mediating variable (or intervening)

10

(In)dependent Variables
Dependent variable (DV)
Is of primary interest to the researcher. The
goal of the research project is to
understand,
predict
or
explain
the
variability of this variable.
Independent variable (IV)
Influences the Dependent Variable in either
positive or negative way. The variance in
the Dependent Variable is accounted for by
the Independent Variable.

11

Moderators

Moderating variable
Moderator
is
qualitative
(e.g.,
gender, race, class) or
quantitative (e.g., level
of reward) variable
that
affects
the
direction
and/or
strength of relation
between independent
and
dependent
variable.
12

12

The Moderating Variable

Is one that has a strong contingent
effect on the independent variabledependent variable relationship.
The presence of the moderating variable
modifies the original relationship
between the independent and dependent
variables.

13

The Intervening Variable

Is one that surfaces between the time the
independent variables start operating to
influence the dependent variable and the
time their impact is felt on it.

14

Theoretical Framework
Having examined the different kinds
of variables that could operate in a
situation and how the relationships
among these can be established, it is
now possible to see how we can
develop the conceptual model or the
theoretical
framework
for
our
research.
15

Theoretical Framework
The
theoretical
framework
is
the
foundation on which the entire research
project is based.
It is a logically developed, described, and
elaborated network of associations among
the variables deemed relevant to the
problem situation.

16

The components of the

theoretical framework
1. The variables considered relevant to
the study should be clearly defined.
2. A conceptual model that describes
the relationships between the variables
in the model should be given.
3. A clear explanation of why we expect
these relationships to exist.
17

Models
An analytical model is a set of variables
and their interrelationships designed to
represent, in whole or in part, some real
system or process.
In verbal models, the variables and their
relationships are stated in prose form.
Such models may be mere restatements
of the main tenets of a theory.

Graphical Models
Graphical models are visual. They are used to
isolate variables and to suggest directions of
relationships but are not designed to provide
numerical results. Awareness
Understanding: Evaluation
Preference
Patronage

Mathematical Models
Mathematical models explicitly specify the
relationships among variables, usually in
equation form.
n

y a 0 a i xi
i 1

Where
y
= degree of preference
,
= amodel
parameters to be estimated
0 ai
statistically

Hypothesis

A proposition

that is empirically testable. It

is an empirical statement concerned with the
relationship among variables.
Good hypothesis:
Must be adequate for its purpose
Must be testable
Must be better than its rivals
Can be:
Directional
Non-directional
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Statistics

Descriptive Statistics
Inferential statistics

Statistics
Descriptive
Statistics
Gives numerical and
graphic procedures
to summarize a
collection of data in
a clear and
understandable way

Inferential
Statistics
Provides
procedures to draw
inferences about a
population from a
sample

Graphs and tables

Tables

Column charts
Bar charts
Line charts
Pie charts
XY (Scatter) charts
Area charts
Doughnut charts
Radar charts
Surface charts
Bubble charts
Stock charts
Cylinder, Cone, or Pyramid
charts

Descriptive Measures
Central Tendency measures. They are computed
to give a center around which the measurements
in the data are distributed.
Variation or Variability measures. They describe
data spread or how far away the measurements
are from the center.
Relative Standing measures. They describe the
relative position of specific measurements in the
data.

Measures of Central
Tendency
Mean:
Sum of all measurements divided by the number
of measurements.
Median:
A number such that at most half of the
measurements are below it and at most half of the
measurements are above it.
Mode:
The most frequent measurement in the data.

Numerical descriptions
Let y denote a quantitative variable, with
observations y1 , y2 , y3 , , yn
a. Describing the center
Median: Middle measurement of ordered
sample
Mean:

y1 y2 ... yn yi
y

n
n

Variance (for a sample)

Steps:
Compute each deviation
Square each deviation
Sum all the squares
Divide by the data size (sample size)
minus one: n-1

The standard deviation

It is defines as the square root of the
variance
In the previous example
Variance = 6
Standard deviation = Square root of the
variance = Square root of 6 = 2.45

Describing variability
Range: Difference between largest and smallest
observations (but highly sensitive to outliers,
insensitive to shape)
Standard deviation: A typical distance from
the mean
The deviation of observation i from the mean is

yi y

The variance of the n observations is

2
2
2

(
y

y
)
(
y

y
)

...

(
y

y
)
2
i
n
s
1
n 1
n 1

The standard deviation s is the square root of

the variance,
s

s2

 Properties of the standard deviation:

s 0, and only equals 0 if all observations are equal
s increases with the amount of variation around the mean
Division by n - 1 (not n) is due to differences between mean and median
s depends on the units of the data (e.g. measure Rs vs $)
Like mean, affected by outliers
Empirical rule: If distribution is approx. bell-shaped,

about 68% of data within 1 standard dev. of mean

about 95% of data within 2 standard dev. of mean

all or nearly all data within 3 standard dev. of mean

Percentiles
The p-the percentile is a number such that at
most p% of the measurements are below it and
at most 100 p percent of the data are above it.
Example, if in a certain data the 85th percentile
is 340 means that 15% of the measurements in
the data are above 340. It also means that 85%
of the measurements are below 340
Notice that the median is the 50th percentile

Example of Tchebichevs Rule

Suppose that for a
certain data is :
Mean = 20

Then:

Standard deviation =3

A least 75% of the

measurements are
between 14 and 26
At least 89% of the
measurements are
between 11 and 29

Bivariate description
Usually we want to study associations between
two or more variables (e.g., how does number of
close friends depend on gender, income,
education, age, working status, rural/urban,
religiosity)
Response variable: the outcome variable
Explanatory variable(s): defines groups to compare
Ex.: number of close friends is a response variable,
while gender, income, are explanatory variables
Response var. also called dependent variable
Explanatory var. also called independent variable

Summarizing associations:
Categorical vars: show data using contingency
tables
Quantitative vars: show data using scatterplots
Mixture of categorical var. and quantitative var.
(e.g., number of close friends and gender) can give
numerical summaries (mean, standard deviation)
or side-by-side box plots for the groups
Ex. General Social Survey (GSS) data
Men:
mean = 7.0, s = 8.4
Women: mean = 5.9, s = 6.0
Shape? Inference questions for later chapters?