Personality psychology

Prof. Caroline Mohamed

D. Caroline Mohamed

 Definition of personality
Definition of personality psychology
Personality theories
1.Trait theories
2.Type theories
3.Psychoanalytic theory
4.Behaviorist theories
5.Social cognitive theories
6.Biopsychological theories
7.Humanistic theories
D. Caroline Mohamed

When

we talk of personality, we
dont mean that a person has charm,
a positive attitude toward life or a
smiling face.
When

psychologists talk of personality, they

mean a dynamic concept describing the
growth and development of a persons
whole psychological system.
D. Caroline Mohamed

Rather

than looking at parts of the person,

personality looks at some aggregate

whole that is greater than the sum of
the parts.

D. Caroline Mohamed

 Personality

can be defined as a dynamic

and organized set of characteristics
possessed by a person that uniquely
influences his or her cognitions,
motivations, and behaviors in various
situations (Ryckman, 2004).

D. Caroline Mohamed

 Personality

psychology is the branch of

psychology that strives to understand the traits and

tendencies that make us unique.

1. One emphasis in this area is to construct a coherent

picture of a person and his or her major psychological
processes.

2. Another emphasis views personality as the study of

individual differences, in other words, how people differ
from each other.

3. A third area of emphasis examines human nature and

how all people are similar to one other.
These three viewpoints merge together in the study of
personality.

D. Caroline Mohamed

D. Caroline Mohamed

D. Caroline Mohamed

 Heredity

Heredity//Environment
Environment//Situation
Situation

Heredity: refers to those factors that were

determined
at
conception.
Physical
structure, facial attractiveness, gender,
temperament, energy level etc.

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9

Environment:

Among the factors that

exert pressures on our personality
formation are the culture in which we are
raised, our early conditioning, the norms
among our family, friends and social
groups etc.

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Situation:

A third, the situation,

influences the effects of heredity and
environment
on
personality.
An
individuals generally stable and consistent,
does change in different situations.

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A number of different theories have emerged

to explain different aspects of personality.
Some theories focus on explaining how
personality develops while others are
concerned with individual differences in

personality.

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 Most

personality theories emphasize

stability over fluctuation.

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 The study of personality has a rich and varied history

in psychology, with an abundance of theoretical
traditions.
1. Trait theories
2. Type theories
3. Psychoanalytic theories
4. Behaviorist theories
5. Social ( learning) cognitive theories
6. Humanistic theories
7. Biopsychological theories
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Definition:
A trait is an element of personality that is relatively
stable throughout the lifespan and across
contexts. In other words, a trait is a consistent
element of self that makes that person who he is.
Traits are the general tendencies you'd list if you
were asked to describe your child or your best
friend.

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Personality traits are "enduring patterns of

perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the
environment and oneself that are exhibited in a
wide range of social and personal contexts."
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
American Psychiatric Association

of

the

Theorists generally assume:

a) traits are relatively stable over time,
b)traits differ among individuals (e.g.
some people are outgoing while
others are reserved), and
c) traits influence behavior.

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Trait theories cont.

Personality

traits are simply:

Actions
Attitudes
Behaviors

you possess

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The most common models of traits incorporate

three to five broad dimensions or factors.
The least controversial dimension, observed
as far back as the ancient Greeks, is simply
extraversion vs. introversion (outgoing and
physical-stimulation-oriented vs. quiet and
physical-stimulation-averse).

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 Lewis

Goldberg proposed a five-dimension

personality model, nicknamed the Big
Five: that determine different personality
types.
Personality test assesses how much of
each of these five factors someone
possess.

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 The

big five factors are:

1. Extraversion vs intraversion- outgoing and

stimulation-oriented vs. quiet and stimulationavoiding.
2. Emotional stability vs Neuroticism
involves a person's ability to remain stable and
balanced, calm, optimistic vs emotionally
reactive, prone to negative emotions.

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 3. Agreeableness vs aggresive - affable, friendly,

conciliatory vs. dominant, disagreeable
4.Conscientiousness vs laidback - dutiful,
planful, and orderly vs.
spontaneous, and
unreliable

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 5. Openness to experience vs traditional- open

to new ideas and change vs. oriented toward
routine.

(For ease of remembrance, this can be written

as either OCEAN or CANOE )

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Gordon Alport (1937) described two major

ways to study personality, the nomothetic and
the idiographic.
Nomothetic psychology seeks general
laws that can be applied to many different
people, such as the principle of selfactualization, or the trait of extraversion.
Idiographic psychology is an attempt to
understand the unique aspects of a
particular individual.

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Hans & Sybil Eysenck suggested that

personality could be reduced down to two
polar dimensions, extraversion - introversion
and emotional stability
instability.
UNSTABLE
Moody
Anxious
Rigid
Sober
Pessimistic
Reserved
Unsociable
Quiet

melancholic

INTROVERTED

Touchy
Restless
Aggressive
Excitable
Changeable
Impulsive
Optimistic
Active
choleric

EXTRAVERTED

phlegmatic sanguine
Passive
Sociable
Careful
Outgoing
Thoughtful
Talkative
Peaceful
Responsive
Controlled
Easygoing
Reliable
Lively
Carefree
Even-tempered
Leadership
Calm

STABLE

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Your personality type can be determined by many

factors. You can approach it the scientific way, by
testing yourself (questionnaires).
A personality test is rather simple. By answering a
few questions about your likes and dislikes and
where you would like to go in life, a professional can
give you a report detailing the type of personality
you have.

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Trait models have been criticized as:

1.Being purely descriptive and offering little
explanation of the underlying causes of
personality. Eysenck's theory, however, does
propose biological mechanisms as driving traits,
and modern behavior genetics researchers have
demonstrated a clear genetic substrate to them.

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2. Another potential weakness with trait theories is

they lead people to accept oversimplified
classifications, or worse offer advice, based on
a superficial analysis of one's personality.
3.Finally, trait models often underestimate the effect
of specific situations on people's behavior.

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It is important to remember traits are statistical

generalizations
that
do
not
always
correspond to an individual's behavior.
The human personality is too complex to be
described in the terms of one theory.
A person certainly have tons of other personality
traits that are not covered at all by a single
theory, that's why one personality type theory
is certainly insufficient to help someone
understand yourself well.

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2. Type theories

Personality type refers to the psychological

classification of different types of people.
Personality types are distinguished from
personality traits, which come in different levels
or degrees.

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According to type theories, for example, there

are two types of people, introverts and extraverts.
According to trait theories, INTROVERSION AND
EXTRAVERSION are part of a continuous
dimension, with many people in the middle.

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Type A and B personality

Meyer Friedman ( 1950) and his
co-workers defined what they
called Type A and Type B
behavior patterns.
They theorized that intense, harddriving Type A personalities had
a higher risk of coronary disease
because
they
are
"stress
junkies." Type B people, on the
other hand, tended to be relaxed,
less competitive, and lower in
risk.
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There was also a Type AB mixed profile.

Current research indicates that only the hostility
component of Type A may have health
implications.
Type A/B theory has been extensively criticized
by psychologists because it tends to
oversimplify the many dimensions of an
individual's personality.

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3. Psychoanalytic theories
(Sigmund Freud )
Psychoanalytical theories explain human
behavior in terms of the interaction of various
components of personality.
Psychodynamic psychology is an approach to
understanding human behavior that focuses
on the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings,
and memories.
Freud developed his theories about behavior
through extensive analysis of the patients that
he treated in his private clinical practice.

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Freud believed that many of the problems that

his patients experienced, including anxiety,
depression, and sexual dysfunction, were the
result of the effects of painful childhood
experiences that the person could no longer
remember.

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The importance of the unconscious in human

behavior,
the idea that early childhood experiences are
critical,
and the concept of therapy as a way of
improving human lives
are all ideas that are derived from the
psychodynamic approach and that remain
central to psychology.

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first comprehensive theory of personality

Q: What caused neurological
symptoms in patients with no
neurological problems?

Hypnosis

Psychoanalysis

Unconscious
Free
Association

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the
the mind
mind is
is like
like an
an iceberg
iceberg -- mostly
mostly hidden
hidden
Conscious Awareness
small part above surface
(Preconscious)

Unconscious
below the surface
(thoughts, feelings,
wishes, memories)

Repression
banishing unacceptable
thoughts & passions to
unconscious
Dreams & Slips
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Personality arises from conflict twixt

agressive,
pleasure-seeking impulses and social
restraints
Satisfaction
without the guilt?

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Id - energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives

Pleasure Principle

Ego - seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways

Reality Principle

Ego

Reality
Principl
e

Super
Ego
voice of
conscience

Id

Super Ego

- voice of conscience
that focuses on how
we ought to behave

pleasure principle
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ID

Seek for immediate satisfaction

Based on self-pleasured principle, not
considerate external environmental
Unconscious mind
Developed started from oral stage or
birth
Play important role in fulfill basic
need of new born child
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 Ego

Developed from ID
Started to develop during anal stage
Ensure that ID need can be express in
an acceptable way in real world
Based on reality principle
Healthy personality results in a well
balance between ID & Superego.
(good ego strength).
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 Superego

Started to develop at the end of phallic

stage (at the age of 5~6)
Based on idealistic standards, aims
for perfection
All about moral values, guidelines,
right or wrong, standard

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personality
personality forms
forms during
during the
the first
first few
few years
years
of
of life,
life,
rooted
rooted in
in unresolved
unresolved conflicts
conflicts of
of early
early
childhood
childhood

Too much or too little gratification can results in oral

fixation.
Behavior : smoking, drinking alcohol, bite nails, over
eat, dependent, pessimism, messy & disorganized,
obsession in cleanliness, perfection & control
Strong conflict can fixate an individual at Stages 1,2
or 3
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Were Freuds theories

the best of his time
or were they simply
incorrect?

Current research
contradicts
many of Freuds
specific ideas

Development does not

stop in childhood

Slips of the tongue are

likely competing
nodes in memory network

Dreams may not be

unconscious
drives and wishes
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Alfred Adler did agree with Freud early

childhood experiences are important to
development, and believed birth order
may influence personality
development

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 What

is your position between

your sisters and brothers?

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 Even though children share the same environment in

the family constellation, psychological situation of
each child is different because of the birth order
Adler identifies 5 psychological positions --- the
oldest, second of only two, the middle, the
youngest and the only child

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The Oldest Child Receives most of

the attention and perhaps spoiled,
Dependable, Hardworking, jealous of a
new child

The Second Child of Only Two

Opposite of first born, try to surpass
older one, find out weak point of the
older and try to excel in that area.

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The Middle Child Feel cheated, Self pity, may

become problem child, Act as a peacemaker
The youngest Child Most pampered,
Develops its own ways
The Only Child Somewhat oldest, Not learn
to share or cooperate with other children,
Want centre stage

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The birth order and the

interpretation of our
position in the family
influence our interaction
in the world as adults

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Order in Family

Traits most likely

Conclusion

First Borns

Leaders, responsible
types, need to manage,
need control, focus.

Low risk takers that

above all want to
succeed.

Second Borns/Middle
Borns

People compromisers,
need to belong, peacekeepers

Need people in order to

succeed, and will go far
to keep relationships
intact.

Onlies

Quiet achievers,
finishers, work well,
want recognition,
secretive.

Aim to please, mostly

themselves by setting
high bars.

Youngests

Idea people, creative,

fun, impatient.

Enjoy life, sometimes

can be hedonistic, but
impact everyone.

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Behaviorists explain personality in terms of the

effects external stimuli have on behavior
Behaviourism argues that there is no mind,
no thoughts, no feelings, and the only
important thing to consider is behaviour.
John B. Watson ( first Behaviorist)
Ivan Pavlov
(Physiologist)

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4. Behaviorist theories

Behaviorists explain personality in terms of the

effects external stimuli have on behavior.
B F Skinner put forth a model which emphasized the
mutual interaction of the person or "the organism" with
its environment.
Skinner views (Radical behaviourism) differed from other
behaviourists (Methodological behaviourism) in that he felt
that thoughts and feelings could be taken into account
when considering the psychology of the individual .

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For example: a child cries because the child's crying

in the past has led to attention.

These are the response, and consequences.
The response is the child crying, and the
attention that child gets is the reinforcing
consequence.
According to this theory, people's behavior is formed
by processes such as operating conditioning.

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Skinner believed children do bad things

because the behavior obtains attention that
serves as a reinforcer.
Skinner put forward a "three term contingency
model" which helped promote analysis of behavior
based on the "Stimulus - Response Consequence Model.

The behaviorists made

substantial contributions
to
Psychology
by
identifying the principles
of learning
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 Definition.
An

approach in study, philosophy, or practice

that focuses on human values and concerns.
Maslows theory is based on the notion that
experience is the primary phenomenon in the
study of human learning and behavior.

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He placed emphasis on choice, creativity,

values, self-realization, all distinctively human
qualities, and believed that meaningfulness
and subjectivity were more important than
objectivity.
Also believes that man has free will -- the
choice to make decisions about one's own life.
Self-Actualization is a meta-need or growth
motive / desire to grow which is part of all life.

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Maslow spent much of his time studying what he

called "self-actualizing persons", those who are
"fulfilling themselves and doing the best they
are capable of doing".
Maslow believes all who are interested in growth
move towards self-actualizing (growth, happiness,
satisfaction) views. Many of these people
demonstrate a trend in dimensions of their
personalities.
Characteristics of self-actualizers according to
Maslow include the four key dimensions:

Awareness - maintaining constant enjoyment and awe of

life. These individuals often experienced a "peak
experience".
He defined a peak experience as an "intensification of any
experience to the degree there is a loss or transcendence
of self". A peak experience is one in which an individual
perceives an expansion of his or herself, and detects a
unity and meaningfulness in life. Intense concentration on
an activity one is involved in, such as running a marathon,
may invoke a peak experience.

Reality and problem centered - they have tendency

to be concerned with "problems" in their surroundings.
Acceptance/Spontaneity - they accept their
surroundings and what cannot be changed.
Unhostile sense of humor/democratic - they do not
like joking about others, which can be viewed as
offensive. They have friends of all backgrounds and
religions and hold very close friendships.

 Concepts

like self-actualization are vague

Emphasis
on self may promote selfindulgence and lack of concern for others
Theory does not address reality of human
capacity for evil
Theory has impacted popular ideas on childrearing, education, management, etc.

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6. Social cognitive theories

Cognitive theories are theories of personality that
emphasize the importance of mental processes
to problem solving, learning and memory.
Mental processes control behavior through
memories, perceptions, and thinking.
Albert Bandura suggested the forces of memory
and emotions worked in conjunction with
environmental influences. Bandura was known
mostly for his Bobo Doll experiment".

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During these experiments, Bandura video taped a college

student kicking and verbally abusing a bobo doll.
He then showed this video to a class of kindergarten
children who were getting ready to go out to play.
When they entered the play room, they saw bobo dolls,
and some hammers.
The people observing these children at play saw a
group of children beating the doll.
He called this study and his findings observational
learning, or modeling.

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In its argument that our thinking has a powerful

influence on behavior, the cognitive approach provided
a distinct alternative to behaviorism.
According to cognitive psychologists, ignoring the mind
itself will never be sufficient because people interpret
the stimuli that they experience.

For instance, when a boy turns to a girl and says, You are so
beautiful, a behaviorist would probably see that as a
reinforcing (positive) stimulus. And yet the girl might not be so
easily fooled. She might try to understand why the boy is
making this particular statement at this particular time and
wonder if he might be attempting to influence her through the
comment.
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 Cognitive

psychologists maintain
that when we take into
consideration how stimuli are
evaluated and interpreted, we
understand behavior more
deeply.

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1. Tell-Show-Do

Acclimatization ( many visits from the

easy to more difficult)
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Objectives:
1. Teach the patient important aspects of the
dental setting.
2. Shape the patients response to procedures
through
desensitization
and
welldescribed expectations.
Indications:
May be used with any
patient.
Contra-indications: None.

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This make use of the fact that individuals

learn much about their environment from
observing the consequences of the
other peoples behaviour.

You or I may repeat an action if we see

others being rewarded, or if someone is
punished we might well not decide not to
follow that behaviour.

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The model youre going to use is close

in age to the nervous child or children
involved.
The model should be shown entering
and leaving the surgery to prove
treatment has no lasting effect.
The dentist should be shown to be a
caring person who praises the patient.

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 3.

Distraction

This technique attempts to shift attention

from the dental setting towards some other
kind of situation.
Distracters
such as videotaped cartoons
and stories have been used to help children
cope with dental treatment. ( The results
are somewhat equivocal and the threat to
switch off the video was needed to maintain
co-operation.)

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Relaxation training is of value where

parents report high levels of tension, and
consists of bringing about deep muscular
relaxation.
( needs trained therapist- useful for adults)

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The basic principle of this treatment

consists of allowing gradually to come to
terms with a particular fear or set of fears
by working through various levels of the
feared situation, from the mildest to the
most anxiety programme.

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Hand-over-mouth exercise (Evangeline

Jordan 1920)
Purpose
gain attention to communicate
extinguish avoidance behavior
help child gain control

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Indications & contraindications

Techniques in dentistry objectionable to

child that
will cooperate to avoid the
technique
Dentist
should
be
calm,
firm
yet
supportive and compassionate
( that normally doesnt happen, the
majority of the dentists that use this
technique presents high level of anxiety.)

The biopsychosocial perspective holds that mental

processes are influenced by the interaction of
biological processes, psychological dispositions,
and social factors.
Holistic Health and Social Psychology
This is a holistic approach that dates back to ancient
Greece.
The modern model was developed by American
physician George Engel.
views biological processes, psychological factors,
and social forces as interrelated influences
all three forces affect and are affected by one
another

Family
Education

Socio economic
situation

Host

82

Plaque-Host-Substrate

D Caroline Mohamed

Cognitive psychology remains enormously influential

today, and it has guided research in such varied fields as
language, problem solving, memory, intelligence,
education, human development, social psychology,
and psychotherapy.
The cognitive revolution has been given even more life
over the past decade as the result of recent advances in
our ability to see the brain in action using neuroimaging
techniques.

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Neuroimaging is the use of various techniques to

provide pictures of the structure and function of the
living brain (Ilardi & Feldman,2001)
These images are used to diagnose brain disease and
injury, but they also allow researchers to view
information processing as it occurs in the brain,
because the processing causes the involved area of the
brain to increase metabolism and show up on the scan.

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Charles Stangor. Introduction to Psychology

In.
http://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/Introdu
ction%20to%20Psychology%20%20Attributed.pdf E book download free
Hsu, Francis L. K.Psychological
anthropology; approaches to culture
and personality(1961) In.
http://archive.org/details/psychological
ant00hsuf

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1.

2.

3.

Based on this lecture make a small report

with your personalitys common trates.
Draw a table and fill it with a resume of the
the personality theories and its most
important characteristics.
Explain some of cognitive
behavioral tequiniques that
dentist can use in common
practice.

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