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The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 comprises of five parts:
General Application, Fire Safety Duties, Enforcement, Offences and
Appeals, Miscellaneous
Part 1 Application.
The order applies to all non domestic premises (with exceptions listed in
article 6 such as ships, offshore, aircraft), and includes advice in four parts
(in schedule 1):
The matters to be considered in risk assessment for dangerous
substances.
The matters to be taken into account in risk assessment for young
children.
Principles of prevention (hierarchy of control)
Measures to be taken in respect of dangerous substances.
A number of definitions in part 1 include:
Responsible Person, which could be considered as: The employer with
control of the workplace, person with overall management of the building,
occupier of the premises, owner of the premises.
General Fire Precautions Measures to reduce the risk and spread of fire,
means of escape that can be safely and effectively used at all times,
means of lighting fire, means for detecting fire and giving warning in case
Maintenance
All equipment, facilities and devices are to be maintained in a good
state, working order and repair.
Part 3 Enforcement
For most premises, the enforcing authority will be the fire authority
for the area. Some exceptions to these are:
The employer has a duty to put into place procedures that will cover drills,
nominated person to aid evacuation and ensure access to danger areas is restricted
to those who are trained.
Additional measures in response of dangerous occurrences:
Information on emergency arrangements is available.
Suitable warning and communication methods are available for immediate
response and rescue.
Visible and audible warning signs are given and persons are withdrawn before any
explosive conditions are reached.
Escape facilities are provided and maintained.
Information is available to the emergency services on procedures, arrangements
and hazards.
Information to Employees
Information should be provided such as risks they may be exposed
to, preventative measures in place, procedures for emergency
arrangements and who the competent persons are.
Training
Employees should have adequate training with regards to Fire
Safety on induction and when there are new circumstance that
warrant a refresher and should be repeated periodically.
Coordination and Cooperation
Where there is more than one employer occupying a building, they
should seek to cooperate and coordinate with each other.
Duties of Employees
These duties are similar to section 7 of the HASWA and Regulation
14 of MHSWR.
Part 3 Contd
In addition part 3 details the different notices that can be served.
These are:
Alterations Notice served if there is believed to be a serious risk
to persons should the premises be changed in relation to its
structure or change of use. The responsible person must then
inform the authority before making any changes with a copy of the
risk assessment and proposed changes.
Enforcement Notice issued when it is believed the responsible
person had failed to comply with any of the requirements set out in
the order. The then have to remedy the issues within a given time
frame, which should not be less than 28 days. The notice will detail
what is not compliant and may put measures that could be
considered.
Prohibition Notice Issued if there is believed to be a serious risk.
This would normally take effect immediately and have remedial
action that should be taken.
Being served with the notice is not an offence, but failure to comply
with the notice is an offence.
Combustion Process.
Once all of the above has been completed, then the site cleanup
can begin and health & safety must be considered when doing so,
as specialist services may be required.
Combustion is a chemical reaction and this reaction can give off heat,
light, smoke or flames.
A fire investigation may start even before the fire has been
completely extinguished if it means evidence collecting can begin
where putting out the fire may lead to the crime scene being
destroyed. It is important to preserve as much of the scene as
possible to allow for this.
Fires will be classes as either:
Accidental - This is where a fire is not suspected as arson but by
some other means. The fire and rescue authority would use the
powers it has under the fire and rescue act to investigate and
pursue criminal action is there has been a breach in legislation.
Arson Set Fires - Arson is investigated by the fire and rescue
service to assist the police in bringing those who started the fire to
court.
Classification
of Fires
Classification of Fires
Construction Materials
Concrete
Where this is used in areas where it may be subject to stresses, it is usually
reinforced with steel bars. If the bars heat up they will begin to lose their strength
and at about 550 C will lose 50% of their strength. This is known as the Critical
Temperature. The bars also act as a conductor of heat and may increase the
likelihood of the concrete spalling.
Timber
When subject to fire conditions timber will act in different ways depending on the
type and size of timber used (thin timbers may promote a fire, large section retain
structural integrity and the charred surface will act as an insulator.
Timber can also be treated with fire retardant materials to increase its level of
safety within fires and the application of a coating can increase its classification of 3
or 4 surface spread of flame rating to a class 1 rating.
It goes through a Pyrolysis stage when burning occurs and thermal decomposition
occurs which causes charring protecting the timber underneath.
Brick
Readily used in construction as they are non combustible and fire resistant, they
may also be used to protect other parts of the structure from fire.
The level of fire resistance offered by brickwork will depend on the thickness of the
brick itself and also how the brick has been made i.e. hollow bricks tend to be more
prone to the front facings breaking away.
Smoke
Most fire deaths in the UK can be attributed to the effects of smoke
whether it is from inhalation or from reduced visibility. In complete
combustion the fuel will be completely burnt giving off primarily
water vapour and carbon dioxide. Unfortunately, in a fire, complete
combustion is rare and so we end up with smoke, which is a
combination of unburnt carbonaceous materials and hot gases.
These tend to be toxic and will include carbon monoxide,
hydrochloric acid and certain cyanides depending on the material
being burnt.
The movement of smoke depends on the temperature of the
smoke. Cold smoke will tend lie at lower levels reducing visibility for
occupants, whereas hot smoke will get taken up on air currents
towards ceiling and higher and if restricted will spread laterally
across ceilings and eventually fill the room. Where large amounts of
smoke are being produced from a fire this can happen very quickly.
Construction Materials
Concrete, Timber and Brick
Smoke
Dust Explosions
Within the workplace if there is the possibility of explosions occurring then
suitable control measures need to be taken and these will include, for
dust:
Control of Ignition Sources naked flames, faulty electrical equipment,
overheating of plant, impact sparks, electrostatic discharges,
spontaneous heating, smoking materials. In consideration of these hazards
it is necessary to control all flames and flame cutting equipment, such as
using cold cutting or removal of combustible dust. Often permits to work
are used to ensure safe systems of work.
Use of Inert Atmosphere - When combustible dusts are handled in
closed vessels oxygen content can be reduced by the introduction of inert
atmospheres (e.g. nitrogen).
Control of dust cloud formation - Good housekeeping is vital for
controlling dust clouds. Air lines or brushing should never be used.
Vacuum systems with filters are effective, or the use of dampened powder
or pelletised products.
Plant Controls - Process deviations need to be controlled, and as such
the plant may require continuous monitoring. Filters used in plant
equipment need to be checked to ensure they do not become blocked so
dust does not escape. Local exhaust would need to be alarmed and
interlocked in case of failure. The use of detectors can help to monitor
sparks or flowing materials and set off systems such as water to help cool
and extinguish potential ignition sources.
Dust Explosions
Explosion Protection
Dust explosions are very similar to gas and vapour explosions although in
dust explosions we tend to get two explosions, these being Primary and
Secondary explosions.
Primary and Secondary the concentration limits needed for a dust
explosion rarely occur outside of process vessels, therefore a primary
explosion would normally take place in mixers, hoppers and silos etc.
However the pressure wave and air turbulence created form the explosion
may dislodge the dust within the surrounding areas and if that dust is then
ignited, by either the initial explosion or another ignition source the
consequences can be devastating and this is known as the secondary
explosion.
Conditions for explosions to Occur
For dust or gas explosions to occur then certain conditions need to be
present and these include:
The dust / gas needs to be combustible
It needs to be within its flammable limits
Must be capable of becoming airborne
An ignition source present and with dust of sufficient heat energy.
Sufficient oxygen to be present
Particle size of dust to be small enough.
This section accepts the fact an explosion has taken place, and considers
the measure necessary to minimise the effects of the explosion on plant
and people.
The main types of explosion protection include:
Explosion Relief Venting
Containment and Suppression
Explosion Relief Venting
This is the most common and simplest methods. It introduces a deliberate
point of weakness into the system, which is an explosion relief vent. To
work successfully, the vent must activate at a pressure well below that
which the plant it is protecting can withstand. Vents are normal in the form
of a lightweight panel or door weighing less than 10KG/m2. Vents need to
be sited correctly so to be clear of obstruction so release is not inhibited.
Vents need to be restrained so they do not become missiles. If a secondary
explosion is likely, the vent should not discharge inside the building.
Explosion Suppression
Explosion suppression systems are often used on major plant items. The
suppression system will detect an explosion in its early stages by the
increase in pressure and a sensor linked to a rapid acting device that
injects a suppressant material into the duct into the path of the explosion
Dust Explosions
Explosion Protection
Dust Explosions
Waste Disposal
It is important to consider the types and sizes of waste produced
when considering waste disposal. Waste should never be allowed to
accumulate, so regular removal is required. Waste materials are a
ready source for fuel so suitable storage areas should be
considered and the position of waste skips so as not to promote the
spread of fire.
Waste building materials should only be by a licensed waste
contractor to a recognised landfill site. It is important to ensure that
fire or explosion hazards are not created so several questions need
to be answered.
Is the waste easily ignitable?
Is there the potential for the formation of a dust cloud if the waste
is disturbed?
Are flammable vapours given off the waste production?
Are the materials to be disposed of incompatible?
Arson
Results of are attacks are: Loss of life and injuries, business
interruption, financial losses, damage to the environment, loss of
goodwill from customers, heritage destroyed.
Arson costs an estimated 1m per day insurance and that over
50% of all fires causing losses in excess of 250,000 are as a result
of arson. Annually more than half of the 800m direct costs of fires
are attributable to arson.
Arson fires tend to be much bigger and costly because they are
normally started under ideal fire conditions in that: fuel may be
brought on site to assist the fire, fires may be started in vulnerable
areas of the building, sabotage of protection measures, ventilation
may be aided by leaving windows and doors open.
Arsonists tend to work under the cover of darkness so more likely
to happen during the night or darker months.
Arson
Waste Disposal
A step by step procedure that will enable a task to be carried out safely
and is agreed by management and employees. When a SSOW is designed
it is usual to take into account the fire hazards associated with the:
People training, behaviour, fire awareness, knowledge, and level of
supervision.
Equipment safe to use in environment, maintained and inspected.
Materials type present, form of the materials (e.g. dust, gases).
Environment heating, lighting, ventilation.
Control of Contactors
Maintenance
It is an organisations responsibility to ensure standards for
maintenance are observed and implemented, and equipment is
properly maintained which will enhance its working life and reduce
the risk of failure or risk of injury to people or fire. It is good
practice to have planned preventative maintenance in place of any
critical equipment. A plan will set out when and how often
equipment should be inspected, serviced and maintained and
detail the competency of the persons carrying out the work.
Storage of Flammables
There are requirements for the correct storage of
flammables. The Control of Major Accident Hazards Regs
1999 (COMAH), give specific guidance and requirements for
storage and controls. Flammable materials should be kept
well away from sources of ignition and stored in well
ventilated areas to prevent the build up of fumes. Leaks
should be controlled to avoid the build up of vapours which
can be heavier than air and travel large distances. The
guidance is that up to 50 litres can be stored within the
workplace providing that a fire resisting cabinet or bin is
used.
LPGs are also a significant concern. The total amount to be
kept at a premises should be to a minimum and below 70kg.
Full and empty LPGs should be kept separate and within
secure locations, either in open air or in a ventilated store
room.
Storage of Flammables
Elements of a Structure
Internal linings mean the materials or products used in lining any partition,
wall, ceiling or other internal structure.
When determining the risk of fire spread and its growth in relation to the
lining materials used the following properties should be considered.
How easy does the material ignite?
How fast will flame spread across the surface of the material?
How fast is heat released from the material?
How much smoke is produced by the material?
Room linings should not be easily ignitable, so should be considered as
part of the assessment, as they may contribute to the phenomenon called
flashover.
Appendix A in Approved Document B describes the different classes of
performance of materials and the appropriate methods of test which are
discussed next.
Surface spread of flame test
This test is used to establish if material has a surface spread of flame that
is either class 4 (being the worst) through to class 1 (The best). Class 0 is
often quoted for some materials these being class 1 that have undergone
a further test to ensure they will not contribute to the propagation of fire.
Class 0 are often used in escape routes.
Compartmentation to
Inhibit Fire Spread
Means of Escape
The definition is: Structural means whereby (in the event of a fire) a
safe route or routes is provided for persons to travel from any point
in a building to a place of safety.
By looking at each component we can ensure that our premises
provide a suitable means of escape.
Structural would normally form part of the structure of the
building and therefore generally unacceptable means of escape
include throw out ladders and chutes, as they cannot be relied
upon.
Travel It should be possible to travel away from the fire, not
travelling excessive distances to a safe place.
Place of safety This ultimate place of safety should be in the open
air and clear from the effects of the fire. However where this is not
possible, an area of comparative safety may be used such as a
protected stairwell, whereby they can then continue onto a place of
safety.
BS5588 Part 11 and Approved Document B give more guidance on
this.
Turn aware from the fire and process along a recognisable escape
route.
Alternative Escape Routes
No excess travel distances
Escape routes must lead to a place of safety
Limitation of routes through access rooms.
Basic Occupancy Calculations
The principles of these based on that depending on the situation, a
person will require a certain amount of space measured in square
metres. Some typical occupancy factors are:
Offices
6.0 m
Standing Areas in Bars etc 0.3 m
Dining Rooms
1.0 m
Factory Areas, Workshops etc
5.0 m
Means of Escape
The colours of the plugs donate the fire standard of the door. This
is:
A white circle with a red dot is an FD20/20 which required
intumescent strips to be fitted.
A white circle with a green dot is an FD20/20 which does NOT
require intumescent strips to be fitted.
FD30/30 means that it is a fire door, which has a 30 minute
stability rating and a 30 minute integrity rating.
Stability is the time at which the door collapsed during test.
Integrity is the time that cracks and other openings exist whereby
hot gases and flames passed through the door and caused flaming
of a cotton wool pad under test.
Lighting and signs once the design and the provision of means of
escape have been fulfilled it is essential to ensure that is can be
safely used and as such it will need to be maintained.
Where the means of escape has no natural or borrowed lighting
then the provision of artificial lighting will be required.
Call points This is normally the standard method of operation for a fire
alarm system. Employees should know where their nearest call point is
and how to operate it. Where there are call points, the following should be
considered:
Sited on escape routes.
Distance Positioned so that no person has to travel more than 30 metres
(45 actual) to operate an alarm from any part of the premises.
Uniformity throughout the premises.
Safe Position operator must not be exposed to undue risk.
Conspicuous well illuminated (day or night).
Height 1.4 metres above floor level. This may need to be lowered to
accommodate wheelchair users.
Operation standard throughout the premises.
Audible Range
Minimum of 65db is required in normal areas or 5db above any
background noise which persists for more than 30 seconds.
Where high noise levels exist the use of visual warnings to be used.
Where sleeping is available, then 75dv is required at the bed head.
A loss of 5db per door should be considered, therefore a sounder per
bedroom is needed.
Limitations of Extinguishers
The main limitation with extinguishers is they can only be used on the
classes of fire they are manufactured for. They are also limited by their
range of discharge. Some types will only last for a short period and can
only be used on small fires. The table below gives examples:
Fire Rating
BS5306 Part 8 (Fire extinguishing installations and equipment)
guidance is given on provision of a minimum number of
extinguishers for class A fires:
A minimum of 2 per floor
Total class A ratings should be no less than 0.065 x floor area of
storey (m2) minimum 26A rating.
Single story occupancy with upper floor not greater than 100m2
rating of 13A may be sufficient.
For Class B fires it is more complicated and the workplace should
be assessed as follows:
Each room considered separately.
Where fire risks are more than 20m apart as above.
Fire risks within 20m of another fire risk, assessed as an undivided
or divided group.
Where there is the possibility of a spillage fire, Class B fire rating is
equal to 10 x volume in litres of that spillage.
Nominal Charge of
Extinguisher KGs or Litres
Minimum duration of
discharge (seconds)
Up to and including 3
12
More than 10
15
Limitations of Extinguishers
An example of this is shown on the next card. The sizes of pipes vary
according to where they are positioned in the installation and the degree
of hazard the installation is designed to meet. Typical sizes are 20-50 mm
internal bore for range pipes and 32-150mm internal bore for risers and
distribution pipes.
Range
Pipe
Riser
Distribution
Pipe
Combustion, stages
Exothermic Reaction one that releases energy in the form of heat.
Endothermic Reaction - one that must absorb energy
Complete Combustion Occurs when all the oxygen in a reaction is
consumed and is the most efficient burning of a fuel (stoichiometric
concentration ideal air to fuel ratio).
Stages of Combustion
Induction this is the early stage of a fire when it is just starting and hear
is starting to build up.
Ignition When the point of ignition is reached and the reaction is self
sustaining.
Growth once ignition occurs, the fire will grow very quickly depending on
the oxygen available.
Steady state When the fire has used all the fuel is used up, and remains
in a steady state.
Decay The final stage of a fire where the fuel is now used up and will
eventually go out.
Ignition Conditions
Flashpoint is the lowest temperature where sufficient vapours are given
off across the surface of the liquid that when an external ignition source is
applied, the vapours will momentarily flash (burn). Substances with a
flashpoint of less than 32oC are known as highly flammable.
Firepoint if the vapours continue to burn, the liquid is said to have
reached its fire point. This is the lowest temperature at which the heat
from combustion of the burning vapour is capable of producing sufficient
vapour for combustion to continue.
Combustion, stages
Flammable or Explosive Limits - for vapours (gases and
dusts) to ignite, they must be within a certain ratio with air
known as flammable or explosive limits.
This is where the fuel to air mixture is at the right limits for
the fuel to burn. Too much fuel in the air and it wont burn
(upper flammable limits). Too little fuel (lower flammable
limits).
Auto Ignition Temperature the lowest temperature at
which the substance will spontaneously ignite.
Vapour Density - is the density of a gas or vapour relative
to air. Gas with a VD of less than one is light than air and
great than one, heavier than air. Lighter gases disperse more
readily than heavier gases.
Combustion, Stages
Combustion, Stages
Evacuation Plans
It is important to consider disabled persons such as the PEEP
and generically the GEEP (as mentioned in means of escape)
and the use of evacuation chairs or refuge points.
Fire Drills
To ensure everyone understands the evacuation process
practice drills should be undertaken. This should be done at
least twice a year. Two and half minutes is a reasonable time
to aim for complete evacuation although this can vary.
People can become familiar with their escape routes and
may not always know where alternative routes are so it is
important to carry out scenarios such as blocking an escape
route to ensure people can find an alternative route.
Recording any difference in evacuation times may then
identify any additional training needs people may have.
Staff Training
There is a duty on employees to ensure staff are provided with adequate
health & safety training and this would include fire awareness training. At
a basic level, fire training should cover matters including:
What to do on discovering a fire.
Actions on hearing the alarm.
Summoning of the fire brigade.
Location of assembly points.
Perception and Behaviour of people in a fire
When planning for fire safety, it is essential to take into account the way
people behave when faced with a fire situation. The perception that people
will immediately evacuate is not always true. People may:
Stand around and watch the fire.
Ignore the fire and carry on with their business.
May try and use fire fighting equipment despite not being trained.
It is only when the fire encroaches in the individuals psychological safety
zone that they start to react to a situation, but any delay may result in
being overcome by heat or smoke.
Visual Warnings
Strobe lights used as a back up to any audible warnings, used in
buildings where people have hearing difficulties, or where there is
high background noise. Can be a disadvantage if it is where people
are not aware of it flashing, involved in high concentration work, or
light is not intense enough.
Information boards large modern buildings (shopping centres)
may have their system connected to large screens where electronic
messages may give visual directions to people to enable
evacuation, but it needs to be mentioned that language and
reading barriers may reduce effectiveness.
Audible Warnings
Bells / Sirens Most common type of warning, which needs to be
heard throughout the building. Relies on people reacting to it and
fire wardens beginning their duties.
Verbal Messages used in places of public assembly, Pa system
uses a pre-recorded message. This may get ignored or its
importance not recognised.
Siren and Verbal There may be a mix of both systems which may
reinforce the message to evacuate.
Warnings
When confronted with either a audible, visual, verbal or combination,
people usually do any number of things which include:
Ignore the warning
Wait to see if it is real
Go and investigate and fight the fire
Raise the alarm and instruct others
Flee from the situation
Fail to respond and freeze.
It is a common misconception that people panic in fire, but in the early
stages, it is more likely that stress levels may increase which affects
decision making processes.
Decision Making Process
In an emergency it is essential information is given to people in a concise
and easy to understand way. Where verbal communication is given it is
best to tell people what to do rather than not to do, and give the
instructions in the order they should be followed such as please leave the
building and go to your assembly point. Use simple words and point in the
direction you want people to go, so it is obvious which way even if they are
not taking in the verbal instruction.
People / Groups
who are at risk
Existing controls
and risks not
adequately
controlled.
Further action
needed, by when,
and who?
Storage
Ventilation is there plenty of fresh air to allow the safe dispersal of any
vapours given off by accidental spillage, release or leakage. It is possible
to store them outside of the workroom in open air?If stored inside, the
area should be well ventilated either be natural or mechanical means.
Permanent means such as using air bricks could be installed both at high
and low levels. Five air changes per hour are normally enough to ensure
vapour levels are kept low.
Ignition sources of ignition should be excluded from the area wherever
substances are to be stored. If using mechanical ventilation, the electrical
safety of the system should be considered.
Containment containers should be suitable for purpose and could
include metal construction fitted with self closing lids to prevent spillage
and vapour escape. Containers should be clearly labelled with information
on the contents. Empty containers should be treated as full unless purged.
Exchange can a less flammable material be used? Or eliminate storage
and have a just in time delivery system?
Separation are dangerous substances stored away from work area and
other processes by physical means such as partitioning. If not possible,
can flameproof storage be used that is secure and bunded? Incompatible
Where hot work is carried out on vessels (i.e. pipe work or petrol
tanks that may contain residues of flammable liquids), this should
only be done under a PTW system and no work should commence
until the vessel has been cleaned.
Smoking should be prohibited in areas where dangerous
substances are used and signage posted accordingly.
Housekeeping good standards of housekeeping should be
maintained throughout areas and this will involve:
Placing contaminated rags in suitable receptacles (e.g. metal
lidded bins that are emptied regularly).
Dealing with spillages promptly using appropriate spill kits
(absorbent mats or granules).
Containment of larger spills
Ensuring spillages do not enter drainage systems.
Personal Protective Equipment the use of flame proof overalls to
protect the employee from splashes and spillages and possible
subsequent ignition.
Employees should be made aware through information, instruction
Sources of Pollution
Fires in businesses can have a significant effect on the environment
which threaten both water supplies and general public health.
Some products are more obvious such as oils and chemicals, but
some are less obvious and may only be a pollutant to the
environment such as food or drink products. It is possible these
products may escape from site into the water system such as:
Direct run off into watercourses or direct into the ground.
Into foul drainage, possible affecting stability of sewage treatment
works.
Atmospheric pollution through vapour clouds.
Surface water drainage systems.
Toxic Gases
When various products such as plastics, foams etc are burnt,
depending on their make up numerous toxic gases may be
expected (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen cyanide
etc). All these gases are toxic, some in small quantities and can be
harmful to the environment as well as people.
Environmental Impact of
Fire - 2
Environmental Impact of
Fire - 1
A SOURCE
e.g.
contaminate
d fire water
run off, toxic
smoke
A PATHWAY
e.g. surface
drains,
permeable
ground
Environmental Damage
For companies to determine whether they are at risk they should carry out
an environmental risk assessment and should consider:
Possible materials and chemicals on site that may act as pollutants.
Location of surface water drains.
Natural / man made water courses including rivers, streams, lakes and
ponds.
Existing containment strategies by bunding and tanks.
Shut off valves and ease of location to negate damage.
Interceptors to protect sewers in the event of foam use for fire fighting.
Secondary containment measures i.e. reservoirs for contaminated fire
water.
If risks have been identified, companies need to consider reducing the risk
to an acceptable level, and the hierarchy below can be used:
Prevention prevent the outbreak of fire by segregating / controlling
sources of ignition for combustible materials, good stock control.
Detection Installing and maintaining automatic detection and protection
systems.
Containment Installing and maintaining facilities for the containment of
firewater for example, storage lagoons, chambers, isolation tanks and shut
off valves.
Mitigation planning in conjunction with local fire and rescue service for
suitable fire fighting strategies including, recycling firewater where non
hazardous, controlled burns where little or no water is used.
A RECEPTOR
e.g. a river,
groundwater,
people
If any one of the above components are missing then there can be
no environmental risk.
Environmental Impact of
Fire - 4
Environmental Impact of
Fire - 6
Environmental Impact of
Fire - 3
Environmental Impact of
Fire - 5