MOTIVATION &

MORALE
 Introduction
 Motivation is a psychological state
 Understanding motivation help in

understanding individual behavior

 Motivation depends on individual as

well as the situation

 Definitions of Motivation

Stephen P. Robbins –
“ The willingness to exert high
levels of effort towards
organizational goals, conditioned
by the effort’s ability to satisfy
some individual need”
Motivation means a process of stimulating
people to action to accomplish desired
goals.
…W.G. Scott

Morale is the capacity of a group of

people to pull together persistently and
consistently in pursuit of a purpose.
…Leighton
 Definitions of Motivation
 Motivation is also defined as a
condition that is initiated by the
need in an individual.
 Motivation consists of three

interacting and interdependent

elements – needs, drives and
incentives.
 Motivation Process

Physiological/ Individual Achieves a

Psychological behaves in a particular
deficiency certain goal
(NEED) manner (INCENTIVE)
(DRIVE)
 Needs
 Imbalance between physiological
or psychological imbalance leads
to a need. E,g, Food and water.
 Need may arise even without

physiological need e.g. to be

successful.
 Drives
 Propel individuals to attain one’s goal
 Drives constitute the core element in
motivation
 Incentives
 Anything that mitigate a need and
decrease the intensity of a drive is
called an incentive.
 Classification of Motives
 Primary Motives - they are
physiologically based – hunger, thirst, sex
etc.
 Secondary Motives - are those which
are learned over a period of time.- fasting
for religious cause etc.
 General Motives – which cannot be
classified as the above two. Also called
“stimulus motives” – curiosity,
manipulation etc.
 General Motives

•The curiosity, manipulation and

activity motives
•The affection motive
 Secondary Motives
 The Power motive Alfred Adler Vs. Sigmund
Freud – (Inferiority & Competition)
 The achievement motive –
• Thematic Apperception test / Degree of Risk Taking e.q.
Ring Toss Game;
• Need for immediate feedback
• Satisfaction of accomplishing than material rewards
 The affiliation motive -
 The security motive -
 The status motive -
 Meaning & Definition
 Integral part of the process of
direction
 Instrument for inspiring workforce and
creating confidence.
 Deals with actuating people to work
for accomplishment of goals.
 It is a performance factor in Industry
Performance of an industy is
determined by two factors:
1.Level of ability to do certain work
2.Level of motivation expressed as:
Performance = Ability X Motivation
Performance will be high if both these
factors are high.
Motivation is governed by human
behaviour in the organisation
Ability to do work is governed by
Education and Training.
Motivation - act of energizing people to
satisfy their needs.
Has its roots in motives which induce a
person to behave in a certain manner.
Motive is defined more often as needs,
wants, drives, impulses etc. within the
individual.
There is a Stimulus behind every
behaviour.
Stimulus depend on the motive.
Motive can be known by studying the
needs & desires.
Need & Importance of Motivation
 Helps in realizing Organizational
goals
 Helps in increasing productivity

 Reduce turnover & absenteeism

 Maintain good industrial relations

 Helps in getting right personnel

 Reduce employee grievances

 Theories of Motivation
 Theories based on human
needs:
Maslow, Hertzberg and
McClelland
 Theories based on human
nature:
McGregor.
 Theories based on
expectancy of human
beings:
Vroom
Maslow’s Need Theory
SELF
ACTUALIZATION

ESTEEM NEEDS

SOCIAL NEEDS

SAFETY NEEDS

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
 CRITICISMS
 Needs may not follow definite
hierarchical order
 Need priority model may not be
applicable at all times.
 Behaviour is guided by multiplicity
of behaviour. Satisfying one need at
a time may not be valid.
 In many level of motivation is low
always.
 Hertzberg’s Two factor Theory
Interview 200 - Two important incidents in their
job:
1. When did they feel particularly good about their
job?
2. When did they feel exceptionally bad about their
job?
Results interesting & consistent.
Good feelings were associated with Job Satisfaction
Bad feelings were associated with Job
dissatisfaction.
Job satisfiers were labeled MOTIVATORS factors
Job dissatisfiers were labeled HYGIENE factors
 Hygiene : Motivators:
Job Dissatisfaction Job satisfaction

Achievement
Recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Company Policy & Admn
Supervision
Interpersonal Relations
Working Conditions
Salary*
Status
Security
 Criticisms
 People tend to take
credit when things
go well & blame
others when goes
bad.
 Theory basically on
Job satisfaction –
not on motivation.
 Job satisfaction not
measured on overall
basis
 Neglects situational
variable in
motivation.
 McClelland’s Need Theory
 Closely associated with
learning theory – since
needs are learned or
acquired from
environment & culture
 People who acquire
particular need behave
differently.
 His theory focuses on 3
needs:
ACHIEVMENT, POWER &
AFFILIATION
 Need for Achievement
 Drive to excel – against standards set
 People with high need for achievement

perform better
 3 Characters:

a) High need achievers-assume

responsibility
b) set moderately difficult goals/calculated
risk.
c) Have desire for performance feedback
 Need for Power
 Concerned with
impressing others/desire
to influence others/the
urge to change
people/desire to make a
diff.in life.
 3 Characters: a) Desire to
influence & direct others
b) desire to control others
c) maintain leader-
follower relation
 Need for Affiliation
 Desire to establish & maintain
warm relations with others.
Similar to Maslow’s social
needs.
 3 Characters: a) Strong desire

for acceptance & approval b)

Confirm to the wishes of those
whom they value
c) Value feelings of others
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
 Extension of Hertzberg’s & Maslow’s Theory
 Identified lower level & higher level needs
 Three Basic group of core needs:
1. Existence needs – survival &
physiological well being
2. Relatedness needs – social &
interpersonal needs
3. Growth needs – inner need for
personal growth
Theory based on Human Nature
McGregor’s Participation Theory
Based on participation of workers
 Theory X
 Two distinct views of human beings
 X Theory is negative:

a) People by nature indolent

b) They lack ambition/dislike
responsibility/prefer directed
c) Self-centered/indifferent to
Organisational goals
d) Generally gullible/not sharp or
bright
 Theory Y
 Y Theory is positive:
a) People by nature are quite
active and not resistant to
Organisational goals
b) They want to assume
responsibility
c) Want organisation to
succeed.
d) Have need for achievement
It is actually the boundary limits
of extremes within which the
organizational man is seen to
behave.
The fact is, no actual man will
belong to either of the two fully.
There will always be overlapping.
They will swing from one to
another with changes in mood
and environment
 Urwick’s Theory
 Each individual should know the
organisational goals precisely and
the amount of contribution through
his efforts
 Each individual should also know that
the realisation of organisational goals
is going to satisfy his/her needs.
 Ouchi’s Theory Z
 Strong Bond between
Organization and Employees
 Employee Participation and

Involvement
 No Formal Organization

Structure
 Human Resource Department

This theory represents

Japanese management
practices (Group decision,
Social cohesion, holistic
concern for employees etc)
 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
 Most accepted explanation on
motivation
 Founded on basic notion that people
will be motivated to high level of
effort when they believe there is
relationship between effort they put
in, performance they achive and
reward they receive.
 Vroom’s Expectancy Model of Motivation

M
O
Effort Perform T
Reward
ance I
V
A
T
I
O
Will my effort Will rewards
improve my
Will performance n
lead to rewards? satisfy my
performance individual goals?
?
 Key constructs in expectancy
theory
 VALANCE: Value or strength one places
on a particular outcome or reward
 EXPECTANCY: Relates efforts to
performance
 INSTRUMENTALITY: Belief that
performance is related to rewards.
 Expressed as: M=VxExI
 Being multiplicative, all values must
have high +ve value. If any one
approaches 0, performance also
touches 0
 The Porter-Lawler Model
 Assumption is that Happy worker is a
productive worker
 Studies prove that there is remote
relationship between level of
satisfaction and level of productivity
 Complex relationship between
motivation, satisfaction and
performance
 Performance depends on 3 factors:
• Employee should have desire to perform
• Employee should have the skill and
abilities to do the job
• Employee should have clear perception
of his role in the organization and job
requirements.
 Variables in the model:
• Effort – Energy expanded to do the job
- depends on attractiveness of the
reward
• Performance – Motivation leads to effort
- effort does not deliver effective
performance
- performance depends on skills
and abilities
- no perfect match between effort
and performance
• Rewards : Reward is based on
performance
 Intrinsic – What employee gives himself
 Extrinsic – What others give

• Performance – satisfaction depends on

perception
• Satisfaction :Depends on whether the
actual reward offered
fall short, match or
exceed.
 Contemporary Theories
 Equity Theory – J. Stacy Adams
- the degree of equity/inequity
perceived by an employee with
reference to his work situation plays
a major role in work performance
and satisfaction
 Equity :
 Person’s outcomes = other’s outcomes]
Persons inputs other’s inputs

Inequity:
 Person’s outcomes < Other’s outcomes
Person’s inputs Other’s inputs
OR
Person’s outcomes > Other’s outcomes
Person’s inputs Other’s inputs
 Referents
 Self-inside : Compare others within the
organization in similar position

 Self-outside: Compares others outside the

organization in a similar position

 Other-Inside : Compares present position

with others in another organization

 Other outside : Comparing self with others

in other organization in a different position
 Variable that influence reference:
• Gender
• Length or tenure
• Level of job
• Level of Education / professional
qualification
 After comparison – choices one make
• Change in inputs – increase/decrease
• Change in outcomes– increase/decrease
• Distort perception of self –
• Choose a different referent –
• Leave the field
 People relate not only their rewards with
effort but also rewards with those of
others. If he finds inequity he gets tensed.
 Four methods by which employee overcome perceived
inequity:
 Over rewarded:
• Hourly based wages :If Rewards exceed their input tend to
produce more.
• Piece rate wages: Over rewarded employees tend to increase
output either in quality or quantity.
 Under rewarded :
• Will try to restore equity by reducing the efforts they put in by
reducing quality or quantity.
• If payment is on the basis of no. of units – reduce equity by
producing more.
 Exceptions:
 Inequity due to overpayment does not
affect much
 Not only pay is considered but other
factors are also considered like job
designation, fringe benefits etc.
 Distributive justice vs. procedural justice.
 This theory demonstrates that employees
are motivated by both absolute rewards
and relative rewards
 Attribution Theory
 Different from other theories
 Identifies attributions made by people for
their motivation. Common assumptions
are:
• Give logical explanation for the happening
• Attribute actions to internal/external causes
• Individuals follow fairly logical approach in
making attributions.
 This theory deals with cognitive
process
 It tries to answer “why” aspect of
motivation and behavior.
 Heider – Behavior is determined by
both personality attributes ( ability,
effort and fatigue) and external
forces (rules, regulations)
Locus of Control Attribution Theory
 It is the chief source of factors that
creates a result to an outcome in the
employee’s perception.
 Depends on Internal/External factors
 An employee’s perceived locus of
control controls his/her own
performance and satisfaction level
 Other Attributions
 Bernard Weiner – Employees with
longer work experience
• have stable internal attributions about
their abilities and
• unstable internal attributions regarding
effect.
 Kelly : Consensus, consistency &
distinctiveness have impact on
attributions.
• Consensus – extent to which others
behave in a similar manner in the same
situation - pertains to other people
• Consistency – pattern of behavior which
may be relatively stable or unstable –
pertains to time
• Distinctiveness – whether the behavior
is similar for all tasks. – pertains to
tasks
 Findings:
 Bad-luck attributions – blaming
external causes like bad luck, fate
etc. for failure
 Good-luck – reduces the happiness
associated with the success.
 Internal factors –
• expectations high for success in future.
• Set Challenging goals for performance
• Greater desire for achievement.
 Other Emerging Theories
 Control Theory –
• Cognitive phenomenon
• Control function
 Agency Theory –
• Principal engages another person to act
on his behalf. Helps understand how
principals can reduce conflicts between
their interests and those of agents.
 Motivating thru’ Job design and
Goal setting
 Job Design – Fredrick Taylor -
Structuring tasks and responsibilities
into a job to make the job a more
meaningful, significant and satisfying
 Approaches to job design:
• Job Engineering – plant layout, design of
product, processes & tools,
measurement and standardization.
 Job enlargement – horizontal
expansion of jobs – increasing the
number of jobs. – less monotonous
 Job rotation – Switching of jobs
 Job enrichment – vertical expansion
of jobs – increase in the content of
work
 Quality of Work Life -
 Motivating Performance through
Goal Setting
 Originated by Theory of Scientific
Management
 Goal – end towards which efforts are
directed
 Guide organization and motivate
employees
 Primary attributes of goals – content
& intensity
 Content – level of difficulty involved
 Intensity – process by which goal is
set and accomplished.
 Performance enhancement thro’ goal
setting:
• S-M-A-R-T
 Application of GS to Organizational
System Performance
• The Process – MBO
• Consensus on key goals and objectives
• Sketch plan of action
• Control of behavior
• Periodic appraisal and reviews