Training On RF Optimisation GSM: Network Engineering

GTL Limited
Network Engineering
Training on RF Optimisation
GSM
June 2005
Presented by : Sudarshan Iyengar
www.gtllimited.com
Agenda
A. Understanding RF Network Cycle
B. Basics of RF Design
C. Why do we need optimization??
D. Optimization Stages
E. Physical and Hardware Optimization
F. Database parameter optimization/ Special Tools
Understanding the RF Network Cycle
Spreadsheet Design
Link Budget
Benchmarking
Downlink / Voice Quality
CW Drive Test
Model Tuning
RF Planning
In-Building Solutions
RF Network Cycle
Traffic Engineering
Expansion Planning
RF Site Survey
RF Drive Test
RF Optimization
Parametric Optimization
Frequency Planning
Neighbor List
PN Planning
Site Parameters
Spreadsheet Design ...

Usually done during Initial Network Build
Link budget to calculate the number of sites.
Calculations based on
subscriber density,
traffic per subscriber,
expected growth in traffic, etc.
CW Drive Test/ Model Tuning...

Purpose
Model Tuning is used to
Accurately allocate the sites.
To achieve more accurate results from the
prediction/simulation tool deployed.
Identification of hotspots/special coverage requirement
areas.
Tuned model can be used as a benchmark for future
expansions.

Model Tuning Process
Setup consists of Test transmitter for the particular band
(GSM 900/1800) usually 20W
Antenna Omni/Panel, cables, accessories.
One candidate chosen to represent each type of clutter
area in the network.
The clutter types could be urban, suburban, rural, etc.
The test transmitter is setup on a suitable rooftop.
Test frequency chosen and transmitted
Drive test is carried out using receiver or TEMS equipment
set to scan mode.

Model Tuning Process
Data collected Rxlev samples aggregated over 30-50 m
bins.
The Rxlev measurements are processed and input to the
prediction tool.
Clutter offset and other parameters are corrected.
Corrections are made to achieve lowest possible Standard
Deviation values.
Thus we have a tuned model, which can be applied to
other areas which have the same clutter type.
RF Planning
The inputs received from spreadsheet design and model
tuning surveys, is used to prepare a Nominal Cell Plan
aka Hi Level Design.
The HLD has the following details
Distribution of the sites across the agreed geographical
area.
Coverage/Capacity objective details.
Type of antennas to be used, sites where special
hardware(TMA/MHA) is required, etc.
RF Planning
The output of the HLD is search rings which is defined
for each site to be built in the network.
Each search ring will have
Nominal site coordinates,
Search radius and
Specifications about antenna height requirements for each
site, in order that the site objectives are reasonably
achieved.
Search rings form a basis for further surveys to be

carried out to hunt for site candidates and identify
suitable ones.
RF Site Survey/Drive Testing

Using the inputs provided by the nominal cell plan, the RF
team performs
Surveys for each search ring in the network to identify the
suitable candidates which can be used for building the sites.
Candidates identified are ranked on basis of their RF
suitability and other parameters such as structural stability,
line of sight clearance(for Tx), accessibility, costs, etc.
Drive testing may be carried out in some cases, to assess
the RF suitability
Once suitable candidate(s) is identified..acquisition begins!!!
RF Planning The REAL Challenge!!!

Acquisition of ideal candidate poses a real challenge to the
network design process.
More often than not candidates which are lower on priority in
terms of RF suitability are the ones which get acquired!!
Often due to acquisition constraints, search rings need to be
modified and sometimes even the nominal plan needs to be
changed.
Thus as an end result the network built is deviated from the one
which was originally designed in the nominal plan.@!@!!!!$!
Frequency Planning
GSM works on a frequency reuse pattern.
As the sites get acquired and the build process starts, the RF
planners prepare a frequency plan for the network.
Different techniques available for frequency plan a) Fixed
Plan, b) Hopping Plan further divided into Baseband Hopping
and Synthesized Frequency Hopping
RF Planners either manually or by the use of an AFP(Automatic
Frequency Planner) create a frequency plan for the network.
Frequency Planning
An optimal frequency is critical to ensure good RF
performance of the network.
Spectral challenges
Limited band allocation
Fast growth rate of subscribers/ traffic growth
Tighter reuse patterns
RF Optimization/Parametric Optimization
During the network build initial RF optimization is done,
to ensure that the sites built are reasonably meeting
their objectives.
During the network build phase it is also ensured that
optimal parameter settings are done for all sites to
ensure good performance.
Detailed explanation of the above to follow!!
Traffic Planning/Expansion Planning
Two stages for Capacity Planning I) Initial Network Build II)

Future Expansion.
1)
Initial Capacity Plan
Spreadsheet design is used.
The expected traffic is calculated based on a certain

amount of traffic assigned per subscriber say 25 mE.
The total traffic requirement is traffic per subscriber X

total no of subscribers.
Network capacity is based on a certain GOS say 2 %.
Erlang B table used to calculate the no. of TRX, hence no

of sites.
Traffic Planning/Expansion Planning
Two stages for Capacity Planning I) Initial Network Build

II) Future Expansion.
2) Future Expansion
This can also be done using spreadsheet design

methodology, using a figure of expected traffic growth.
Alternatively TRX additions are done on an ad-hoc basis

by studying the traffic trend on a weekly/monthly basis.
In cases where no further TRX addition is practicable,

capacity sites are added in the existing network.
Separate planning is done for Traffic Channels(TCH) and

Access Channels (SDCCH).
Inbuilding Solutions
IBS is required in places where indoor coverage
requirement is critical and the possibility of providing
coverage from outdoor sites is not practicable.
Usually implemented for places like corporate offices,
hotels, hospitals, shopping complexes, etc., where both
coverage and capacity is essential.
IBS implementations may consist of
Repeaters Low cost solution for covering a small area
with less traffic
Microcells/Macrocells Separate BTS sites which can be
a single carrier microcell or a multi carrier macrocell,
implemented in places where larger area needs to be
covered and has higher traffic requirement.
Inbuilding Solutions
IBS implementations usally deploy a passive RF network
using DAS(Distributive Antenna Systems). In some
exceptional cases active elements like Leaky Feeders
might be used.
Cost of leaky feeder is comparatively very high, hence the
requirement needs to be justified!!
IBS performance also needs to be monitored and optimized
as it is critical to the performance of the whole network.
A bad performing IBS can skew the statistics of the BSC
to which it belongs.
Special handover algorithms are used for controlling
handovers between IBS sites to outdoor network, in order
to achieve good performance and for traffic management.
Benchmarking
Benchmarking is done for having a comparison of own
network with competitors network in terms of
coverage/voice quality.
Benchmarking is also done for comparing own networks
performance against certain set KPIs or previously
achieved performance targets.
Special tools like Qvoice equipment is available for voice
quality benchmarking.
For coverage/quality benchmarking could be done using
regular drive test and post processing tools like TEMS and
DESKCAT
Network Operator/OEM vendor usually subcontracts this
activity to a 3rd party, in order to derive unbiased results
from the exercise
Benchmarking
Statistical data from benchmarking can be used as a
valuable input to the network optimization process.
The data is used to identify weak areas in the network,
which helps in developing strategies for improving the
network performance.
Mobile Communications Propagation

Mobile Communications propagation is impacted by :
Path Loss
Reflection
Diffraction
Path Loss
The basic path loss is the transmission loss in free space.
Lfsl = 32.4 + 20 log d(in Kms)+ 20logf(in Mhz)
d
At 900 Mhz, at a distance of 1km , Loss = 91.5 db
Actual prediction of loss cannot be done on this, since in a mobile
environment the mobile will receive signals from several reflections.
The above formula is only valid under direct LOS
and no reflection conditions.
Reflection
Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon a

surface which has very large dimensions as compared to the wavelength of the
propagating wave.
Reflections occur from surface of earth, buildings,walls and water.
The wave is partially absorbed and partially reflected.
Amount of absorption will depend on the reflection coefficient of the

reflecting surface.
Reflection coefficient is function of the material properties and depends on
wave polarization , angle of incidence and the frequency.
Reflection
Path loss for 2 -ray Model ( over flat conductive surface)
ht
hr
d
L2ray = 40 log d - ( 20 log ht + 20 log hr )
Analytical formula, only valid for larger distances ( > 10 Km)

Loss increases at larger distance at a rate of 40db /dec.
At 900 Mhz, 10,000m distance , ht = 100m, hr
= 1.5m
Lfs = 111.5 db whereas L2ray = 116.5 db
This indicates that in 2 ray path , additional loss of 5 db.
Reflection
Reflection in actual mobile environment , would be from multiple paths.

So, reflection in mobile communications is Multipath reflection.
RSL will be resultant of levels coming from all paths.
Diffraction
Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved
surface of earth and behind obstruction.
ht
Shadow region
hr
RSL drops as the receiver moves deep into the shadow region
Huygen's principle on phenomenon of diffraction

All points on a wave-front can be considered as point sources for the production of
secondary wavelets, and that these wavelets combine to produce a new wave-front in
the direction of propagation.
Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary wavelets

into the shadowed region
Diffraction
Diffraction is of two types in general
Smooth Sphere Diffraction

Knife Edge Diffraction
Smooth Sphere Diffraction
Diffraction takes place through almost a flat surface.
Knife Edge Diffraction
Hills, Mountains, Buildings will cause knife edge diffraction

In a Mobile environment most of the diffraction is knife edge.
Calculation of Diffraction Loss

Fresnel zone geometry
Area around the LOS within which a diffraction can result into
antiphase(180 deg) condition is the first fresnel zone.
ht
hr
If an object is within the fresnel zone or completely blocks the zone, then also energy
will arrive at the receiver but will diffraction loss.
In Mobile environment, we are not worried about clearance, but only with the loss.

Fresnel diffraction parameter (v)
Indicates the position of the object with reference to the fresnel
zones ( 0 means , object tip on LOS, 1 means tip on 1st fresnel
zone on upper side).
d1
v= h
d2
2 ( d1 + d2 )
d1.d2
From "v" , we can compute the diffraction loss.
( all values in "m" )

Relation of "v" with diffraction loss ( graphical )
5
Knife edge diffraction gain (GadB)
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-3
-2
-1
Fresnel diffraction parameter v
Scattering
Radio wave when impinges on a rough surface , reflected energy

is spread out in all directions due to scattering.
This is the reason actual RSL in a mobile environment is often
stronger then what is predicted by reflection and diffraction.
Objects such as Lamp posts and trees tend to scatter energy in
all directions, thereby providing additional radio energy at the
receiver.
Path Loss Prediction
Formula's described earlier are based on simple models of the radio path.
Formula's don't take care of the type of the terrain of the radio path.
Realistic method of prediction would be to use empirical data of radio

wave propagation over various types of terrain and land usage.
Empirical data of this type were collected by Okumura from his
comprehensive radio wave propagation measurements
Okumura Model
Okumura developed a set of curves giving the attenuation in excess to

FSL in an urban area with base station effective height of 200m and and
mobile antenna height of 3m.
These curves give the loss as a function of frequency and distance from
base station.
Okumura Model
Okumura Model
Path loss for different heights can be calculated by these curves by
using the formula.
Path Loss = Lfsl + A(f,d) - G(hte) - G(hre)

G(hte) and G(hre) are the effective Base Station and MS antenna heights
G(hte) = 20 log
h
te
( )
1000m > hte > 10m
G(hre) = 10 log
( hre )
hre < 3m
G(hre) = 20 log
( hre )
hre < 3m
200
3
Okumura Model
What is Effective Antenna Height ?
hte = Antenna height above msl(hmsl) - average ground level (havg)
( average ground level is calculated within 3 - 15km )
hmsl
hte
Average ground level (havg)
3 km
15 km
Okumura Model
Okumura curves are only applicable for urban areas.
For other terrain's, Okumura has provided correction factors.
The correction factors are provided for 3 types of terrain in the

form of curves related to frequency.
Open Area : corresponds to a rural , desert kind of terrain
Quasi Open Area : corresponds to rural , countryside kind of terrain
Suburban
Okumura Model
Path loss for other terrain's
Path Loss(o,q,s) = Lfsl + A(f,d) - G(hte) - G(hre) - G(area)
Okumura Model
Conclusion
Simplest, best and accurate prediction model but only for specific
terrain's.
Slow response to rapid changes in terrain.
Model is fairly good for urban and suburban areas, but not as good in
rural areas.
Standard deviations between predicted and measured loss values 10
dB to 14 dB.
Model is more graphical than mathematical, for computation we need
formula's not graphs.
Hata Model
Hata model is an empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data

provided by Okumura.
Hata presented the urban area propagation loss as a standard formula
and supplied correction equations for applications for other situations.
Formula's are designed for computer usage, but they are only rough
approximations of Okumura's curves.
Since Terrain types profiles are practically infinite, modeling of the
tool used for prediction because essential but taking several
measurements and several times.
Hata Model
Urban terrain
L(urban) = 69.55 + 26.16 log fc - 13.82 log hte - a(hre) + ( 44.9 - 6.55 log hte ) log d
fc = frequency in MHz ( 150 - 1000 MHz)
hte = BTS antenna height ranging 30m to 200m
hre = effective receiver antenna height ranging 1m to 10m
d = Transmitter receiver separation distance (1 - 20 km )
a(hre ) = correction factor for effective mobile antenna height which
is a function of size of the coverage area in db
Small to medium city
a(hre) = (1.1 log fc - 0.7 ) hre - ( 1.56 log fc - 0.8 ) db
For large city
2
a(hre) = 3.2 ( log 11.75 hre ) - 4.97
Hata Model
Correction for Suburban & Rural terrain's
Loss for SUBURBAN
2
L(sub) = L (urban) - 2 [ log (fc/28) ] - 5.4
Loss for Rural Open Area

2
L(ro) = L (urban) - 4.78 ( log fc) - 18.33log fc - 40.94
Loss for Rural Quasi-Open Area

2
L(rqo) = L (urban) - 4.78 ( log fc) - 18.33log fc - 35.94
COST 231 - Hata Model

COST -231working committee developed an extended version of
HATA model for frequencies up to 2 GHz.
L(urb) = 46.3 + 33.9 log fc - 13.82 log hte - a(hre) + ( 44.9 - 6.55 log hte ) log d +Cm
fc = frequency in MHz ( 1500 - 2000 MHz)
hte = BTS antenna height ranging 30m to 200m
hre = effective receiver antenna height ranging 1m to 10m
d = Transmitter receiver separation distance (1 - 20 km )
a(hre ) = correction factor for effective mobile antenna height which
is a function of size of the coverage area in db
Cm = Correction factor for city size
a(hre) = (1.1 log fc - 0.7 ) hre - ( 1.56 log fc - 0.8 ) db

Cm
= 0 db for medium city and suburban centers with moderate tree density
Cm
= 3 db for metropolitan centers.
For rural areas , the earlier formula's will apply
Path Loss Predictions for GSM

Selection of models for predicting path loss for GSM will depend on the
cell ranges.
GSM has 3 cell ranges and different prediction model for each
Large Cells
Small Cells
Microcells
Large Cells
Antenna is installed above the maximum height of the surrounding roof

tops.
Propagation is mainly by diffraction and scattering at roof tops in the
vicinity of the mobile i.e. the main rays propagate above the roof tops.
Cell radius is mainly 1 km and normally exceeds 3 km.
Hata's model and the COST 231-Hata model can be used to calculate
path loss in such cells.
Small Cells
Antenna is sited above the median but below the maximum height of
the surrounding roof tops.
Propagation mechanism is same as large cell
Maximum range is typically less than 1 - 3 kms.
Hata model cannot be used since it is applicable above 1 km.
COST 231-Walfish-Ikegami model is used for radius less than 5kms in
urban environment.
COST 231 - Walfish-Ikegami Model
Without free LOS between BS and MS

Frequency (f) = 800 - 2000 MHz
Transmitter height (hte) = 4 - 50m
Mobile height (hre) = 1 - 3m
Distance (d) = 0.02 - 5 km
Height of buildings "Hroof" (m)
Width of road "w" (m)
Building separation "b" (m)
Road orientation with respect to the direct radio path Phi (o)
Free Space Loss (Lfsl)
Path Loss = Lfsl + Lrst + Lmsd

Lrts : roof-top-to-street diffraction and scatter loss
Lmsd : multiscreen diffraction loss
COST 231 - Walfish-Ikegami Model

With a free LOS between bs and ms ( Street Canyon )
Path Loss = 42.6 + 20 log(d) + 20 log(f) for d > = 0.020 km
Indoor Loss
Additional loss which occurs at 900 MHz when moving into a house on the
bottom floor on 1.5m height from the street.
Indoor loss near windows ( < 1m ) is typically 12 db.
Building loss as measured by Finish PTT varies between 37 db and -8db
with an average of 18db taken over all floors and buildings.
In our predictions and calculations, as per GSM recommendations we will
consider 15db as an average indoor loss.
Microcells
Cell in which the base station antenna is mounted generally below roof
top level.
Propagation is determined by diffraction and scattering around
buildings ie. the main rays propagate in street canyons.
Microcells have a radius in the region of 200 - 300m .
Microcells can be supported by smaller and cheaper BTS's.
Microcells Model
With a free LOS between bs and ms ( Street Canyon )
Path Loss (GSM 900 ) = 101.7 + 20 log(d) for d > = 0.020 km

Path Loss (DCS 1800 ) = 107.7 + 20 log(d) for d > = 0.020 km
Propagation loss in microcells increases sharply as the receiver moves
out of LOS , (ex : around a street corner ).
20db of loss could be added per street corner, up to two or three corners.
Beyond, this the COST231 - Walfish Ikegami model should be used
Fading
A mobile radio signal envelope has continuos variations.
These variations continuously fluctuate the signal level and is referred

to as the fading phenomenon.
Fading in mobile environment is of 2 types:
Small Scale Fading
Log-normal Fading
Small Scale Fading
Rapid level fluctuation over a short period or travel distance (approx:

half wavelength), so that large-scale path loss may be ignored.
MS antenna is lower in height as compared to surrounding objects, so
several mulipath signals arrive with various phases and amplitudes and at
certain times almost cancel out each other.
Short - term fading at certain times can be heard as annoying bursts.
SS
Average
Small Scale Fading

Rayleigh distribution
Observing the Short-term fading with reference to average level
ro (small-scale fading)
ro (db)
= Average - instantaneous fluctuations
ro ranges in 40 db ( 10 db above and 30 db below the average )

ro follows a Rayleigh-distribution , since generally signals arrive from
reflections only, hence small-scale fading is often called Rayleigh-Fading.
Small Scale Fading

Rayleigh distribution
As per Rayleigh distribution increase in fade depth is inversely
proportional to the probability (ex: 10 db fade may occur for 40 %
of the time, where the probability of 40db fade would be 10 % )
Pr
avg level
Fade Margin
min recv level
of rcvr
deepest fades ( typically 30 db )
Area of poor quality

Probability that fade depths will enter area of poor quality is
required to be less than 10 %.
Small Scale Fading
If probability of small-scale fades is more below the minimum required

signal level, then this could result in distorted speech.
To ensure this probability is less than 10 % , Transmit Power should be
adjusted accordingly to achieve a high fade margin.
Space Diversity is quite effective for this kind of fades.
Rayleigh distribution only occurs when there are all reflected waves and
no direct LOS signal. If there is a direct LOS signal present with
reflections, then it is Ricean distribution of fading which is less severe ,
since the direct component is relatively much stronger than reflected
waves and will restrict deep fades.
Log-normal Fading
SS
Log-normal Fading
Time
Small -scale signal variation when averaged out is called the local mean and is
expressed in log scale of power , and is called Log-normal fading.
Log-normal variation is due to the terrain contour between the bs and ms.
If the terrain is an open area, then the change in signal will be with distance only,
but normally there are obstructions ( buildings, trees etc. ) which cause a rapid
variation of signal from its local mean over an area of 5 to 50m
Log-normal Fading
Log -normal fading depths when exceeds the min receive level will result
into shadow areas ( since this effect is over an area of 5 - 50m ) . This is
also referred to as Coverage Holes.
Remedy for this is to keep an additional fade margin on top of min-rcv
-level benchmark when predicting coverage.
This margin is called is log-normal shadow margin.
Log-normal shadow margin is in the range of 3-5db, with standard
deviation of the local mean in the range of 4-8 db.
For, urban areas GSM recommends a margin of 5 db ( considering 7db as
the deviation), this is to achieve 90% location probability on cell edges.
Time Dispersion (Multipath)
Time Dispersion is the arrival of signals from multiple paths, but

spread in time.
Equalizer in GSM can handle multipaths within a delay spread within 4
bit periods (15us) ( path difference of 4.5 kms ).
Any multipath component arriving after 15us will act as interference.
GSM needs a C/I ratio of 9 db, and the same applies to carrier to
multipath (>15us) also. This ratio is known to Primary/Multipath (P/M )
Planning and BTS site selection should consider the location probability
of Primary/Multipath ratio below 9 db.
Reducing Time Dispersion Issues
Optimization and Countermeasures for Time Dispersion is something

very interesting and can result into several issues like distorted voice,
echo and even dropped calls !!
Certain countermeasures when adopted in the planning stage can reduce
or eliminate these issues.
If problems occur later on, then optimization needs to be done.
Troubleshooting multipath problems is a big issue in live networks.

Site Location
Identify potential reflectors in the predicted cell area.

Locate sites for BTS near reflectors, this will bring the reflections
within the window.

Directional Antenna's(Sectorization)
Using Sectored cells config, with the directional antenna
pointing away from the reflector.
Antenna's front-back ratio is a very critical parameter.

Over Water Bodies
Time dispersion over water can make the quality worst
Covering the area from the other side of the water body will avoid
large path differences between reflected signals.
Side lobes can still result into problems, where handovers should
take care off, by properly setting neighbors& parameters

Tilting Antenna's
Tilting Antenna will reduce energy radiated towards the reflector.
Antenna's can be tilted horizontally or vertically.
Horizontal tilt will reduce the coverage to a large extent, hence

vertical tilt is the most preferred one.
Reducing Output Power ???

Reduction in output power will reduce the energy from both
direct as well reflected signal. Hence, P/M will not change.
Doppler Shift
The shift in frequency relative to the speed of the mobile phone is
Doppler Shift.
fd = v
fd = Shift in frequency in Hz
v = speed of the mobile in m/s
= wavelength in m
Actual received carrier frequency = fc + fd, when mobile is moving
towards the transmitter.
Actual received carrier frequency = fc - fd, when mobile is moving
away from the transmitter.
There is no shift , when the vehicle is moving perpendicular to the
angle of arrival of the transmitted signal.
Frequency Planning
Objective
Optimum uses of Resources
Reduce Interference
Frequency Planning
Frequency Re-use
F= 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
Clusters
F=2
GSM uses concept of cells

One cell covers small part of network
Network has many cells
Frequency used in one cell can be used
in another cells
This is known as Frequency Re-use
F=1
F=4,8
F=6,10
F=5,9
F=2
F=3
F=7
F=2
F=1
F=4,8
F=6,10
F=5,9
F=3
F=7
F=1
Co-Channel ( Re-use ) Cells
F=3
F=7
F=4,8
F=6,10
F=5,9
Co - Channel Re-use factor
C / I = 9 db
A
A
Q= D
R
Q = Sqrt ( 3 x N )
Adjacent-Channel Re-use Criteria
Adjacent ARFCN's should not be used in the same cell

It will have no problems in Downlink*, but will have high risk of uplink
interference (due to mandatory uplink power control ).
- 90 dbm ( C/a = -20 )

- 70 dbm ( C/a = 20 )
33 dbm
5 dbm
Since all the ARFCN's in a cell are

frame synched, Timeslot numbers
will align on all the ARFCn's
* If Downlink dynamic power control is not used
Adjacent-Channel Re-use Criteria
Adjacent ARFCN's can be used in adjacent cells, but as far as possible

should be avoided.
As such separation of 200 Khz is sufficient, but taking into
consideration the propagation effects, as factor of protection 600
Khz should be used*.
In the worst, Adjacent ARFCN's can also be used in adjacent cells by
setting appropriate handover parameters ( discussed later in
optimization)
* Practically not possible in most of the networks due to tight reuse
Cell Configuration
Sectorial Cell
Omnidirectional Cell
BTS
Low gain Antennas

Lesser penetration/directivity
Receives Int from all directions
Lower implementation cost
BTS
High gain Antennas

Higher penetration/directivity
Receives Int from lesser directions
Higher implementation cost
Interference in Omni-Cells
B
A
Receives Interference from all directions
3,6,
9C
3,6,9
A
3,6,9
B
Sectored Cells
C3
6
3
9
C
1
B3
B1
6
9
C2
B2
A3
6
A2
3
9
A1
Receives
Interference
from lesser
directions.
Re-use Patterns
Re-use Patterns ensures the optimum separation between Co-Channels.
Re-use pattern is a formation of a cluster with a pattern of frequency
distribution in each cell of the cluster.
Same cluster pattern is then re-used.
Preferred Re-use Patterns

Omni - Cells : 3 cell, 7 cell, 12 cell, 14 cell, 19 cells etc
Sector - Cells : 3/9 , 4/12, 7/21
3/9 Re-use Pattern
A1
C2
C3
B1
B3
C1
B2
A1
C1
C3
B1
B3
C2
B1
B3
A2
A3
C1
B2
A1
C1
C3
B1
B3
C2
B1
B3
A2
A3
C1
B2
A1
B2
A1
C2
C3
C2
C3
A2
A3
B2
A1
C2
C3
A2
A3
C3
A2
A3
A1
C2
C3
C2
Exercise !!!
Using ARFCN's 1to9 , do the channel allocation for the below cells
using 3/9 pattern
A1
C2
C3
A2
B1 A3
B3
B2
A1
C1
B1
B3
C2
C3
C1
A1
A2
C1
B1
B3
C2
B2
A1
A2
A3
B2
A1
B1
B3
C2
C3
C2
C3
A2
A3
B2
A3
B2
A1
B1
B3
C2
C3
A2
A3
C3
C1
A1
C2
C3
C3
C1
C2
Frequency Allocation in 3/9 patterns
1
7
4
3
6
Adjacent Channel Interference is very difficult to avoid within

the cluster itself.
4/12 Reuse Patterns

A1
B2
B3
D1
D3
C1
D2
B1
C1
C3
A1
A3
C2
B1
B3
D2
D3
B1
A2
C1
A1
B3
C1
C3
B2
D1
D3
B2
B3
D1
C2
A1
D2
B1
A2
A3
B2
B3
C2
C3
B2
D1
C2
C3
B2
B3
A2
A3
C1
D2
D3
D3
D2
Exercise
Using ARFCN's 61 to72 do the channel allocation for the below cells
using 4/12 pattern.
D1
D3
C1
B2
B3
C1
A1
A3
C2
B1
C1
C3
B2
D2
B1
B2
B3
C2
A1
D1
D3
A2
A3
D2
D3
B3
A1
B2
B3
C2
C3
B2
D1
A2
C1
B1
B3
C2
C3
C1
D2
D3
A2
A3
D2
B1
C3
A1
B2
B3
D3
D1
D2
4/12 Pattern Channel Allocation
1
5
12
4
3
9
11
2
6
10
4/12 pattern avoids adjacent channels in adjacent cells
Reuse Patterns Conclusion
Larger reuse patterns give reduction in interference

Re-use patterns becomes more effective with sectorial cell
configurations.
To implement large patterns ( like 4/12, 7/21) , more channels
are required.
So with less resources, the best way to plan is :
1. Use optimum no of channels per cell.
2. Thus, increase the pattern size.
Critical Factors for good RF Network

Grid based RF design.
Maintain standard azimuths while sectorizing cells This
makes frequency plan easier
Correct choice of antenna type for specific coverage
requirements.
Use of optimal antenna heights Should be sufficient to
cater to the coverage area, but should not exceed the
requirement, else it results into large spillovers and
interference, making reuse difficult!!
Use optimal tilt Electrical tilt as far as possible. In
some cases combination of electrical and mechanical tilts
Quality of Service
Effect of QOS !
Revenue
---------
Dissatisfied Customers
--- Customers face describes your profit

curve
--- 1 Dissatisfied customer prevents 10 new
Customer Switchovers
Less New Customers
Cost of Dropped Calls
Cost of Blocked Calls
Importance of RF Optimization
RF Optimization is a continuous and iterative process.
Main Goal To achieve performance levels to a certain set
standard.
Network subscribers expect wireline/near wireline quality.
Network subscribers also expect 100 % availability at all given
times.
RF network optimization is a process to try and meet the
expectation of subscribers in terms of coverage, QoS,
network availability.
RF optimization also aims to maximize the utility of the
available network resources.
Each operator has a certain set of decided KPIs (Key
Performance Indicators) based on which the operator guages
the performance of his network.
RF/Access Network KPIs can be broadly classified into

three types
a) Access related KPI
b) Traffic/Resource Usage related KPI
c) Handover related KPI
Examples of access KPI

a)SDCCH Drop rate
b) Call setup success rate
c)SDCCH Blocking, etc.
Examples of Traffic KPI

a)TCH Drop Rate
b) Call success rate
c)TCH Blocking, etc.
Examples of handover performance KPI

a)Handover Success rate b) Handover failure rate.
c)Handover per cause, per neighbour, etc.
Apart from the KPIs mentioned earlier the operator may

have his own set of custom KPIs which the operator feels is
critical to guage the performance of his network.
RF optimization process drives the effort to achieve and

maintain the network performance KPI.
Optimization can be broadly divided into 3 categories, as

follows
a) Hardware Optimization
b) Physical Optimization
c) Database/Parameter Optimization
Generally the activities mentioned above are done in parallel.

In some cases one may precede the other.
Network Optimization Cycle
Nominal Cell Design
Traffic Optimization
RF Planning
RF Fine tuning
Network Rollout
/Build Phase
Optimization Stages
Database
Network Pre
parameter optimization
Optimization
Physical/
Hardware
Optimization
Hardware Optimization
Hardware Optimization is a process in which ailing network

elements which affect the performance of BSS (Access
Network) are trouble-shooted.
The BSS maintenance team attends to hardware issues.

However there is a substantial assistance taken from the RF
team for isolating the problem to the specific hardware.
How is hardware optimization done??
Inputs for the process are
Drive testing
OMCR statistics
Hardware Optimization - Typical Hardware Problems
In most cases, hardware failures on a BTS/BSC or any part

of the access network alarms are generated at the OMC,
which help in identifying the fault
In some cases, there are no alarms generated
Key statistics from OMCR could point towards hardware

failures Typical statistics which indicate such problems are
a) Poor Assignment Success/High Assignment failure rate
b) High TCH/SD RF Loss
c) High handover failure rate
d) Lower call volume/traffic on the cell
Faulty TRX One of the most common problems. This can be

identified from OMCR statistics as well as drive test. In
some cases only a particular timeslot on a TRX could be
faulty. Immediate step to be taken is to lock the particular
timeslot/TRX from the OMC and escalate the fault to the
BSS team. For identifying this problem vide drive test, the
RF engineer has to go to the site and conduct a timeslot
test/make several calls on the particular cell and also test
handovers to and from neighbour cells.
Sleeping TRX/Sleeping Cell Sometimes certain TRXs/Cells

do not take any calls during the day these are referred to
as sleeping radios OR sleeping cells. Usually this is a
temporary problem and gets resolved by performing a Reset
on the particular site or by doing a Lock Unlock process on
the specific TRX/sector.
Path balance problems This is also one of the common

causes for poor cell performance.
path balance is pegged as an OMCR statistic on a cell basis
General formula is path balance=uplink pathloss downlink
pathloss.
In Motorola OSS pathbalance= pathloss+110.
where pathloss = uplink pathloss downlink pathloss.
uplink pathloss = actual Ms Txpower rxlev_ul
downlink pathloss = actual Bs Txpower rxlev_dl
It is desirable to have the pathloss value as 0 which
represents a balanced path. However a deviation of +/- 10 is
acceptable
Path balance problems If the pathbalance is below 100 or

above 120, it indicates that there could be a problem in
either downlink or uplink. PB value above 120 represents a
weaker uplink and stronger downlink, whereas PB value below
100 would represent a weaker downlink.
If MHA/TMA is used or receive diversity is applicable,an
additional 3 dB gain is introduced in the uplink. In such case a
deviation of 20 is acceptable, i.e, a PB of 95 would be normal
in such case.
Path Balance If the PB statistic indicates problem in the

downlink/uplink the RF path should be traced for possible
hardware faults. Possible things that could go wrong are
a) High VSWR due to faulty feeder cable
b) Improper connectorisation
c) Faulty combiner

d) Faulty antenna improper impedance matching between
antenna and feeder cable (rare case)
Processor problems
The present BTS equipment architecture is quite robust and with

the evolution of VLSI techniques, the different hardware modules
have been compacted into single units.
The current TRXs/TRUs are having inbuilt processing abilities apart

from also containing the RF physical channels.
However in places where older equipment (for e.g. Motorola

InCell/Mcell) are still in use, problems with processor (GPROC or
MCU), could be encountered.
These problems are easily identifiable by drive test and usually also
show up degradation on OMCR statistics. However in the current
scenario these problems have rare occurences.
BSC/Transcoder Problems Although the occurrence is rare, there

are instances where some part of Transcoder or timeslot on the
PCM link go faulty. In such cases, the timeslot mapping needs to be
identified and appropriate troubleshooting steps need to be taken.
These problems can seldom be identified by drive testing.
Steps for Hardware Optimization

a)
Check from OMCR statistics for indications of hardware faults
b) Check event logs from OMCR to find out if any alarms were
generated
c) Conduct call test on the site/cell in question check for
assignment failures, handover failures, from layer 3 messages.
Hardware Optimization Hardware Optimization Steps
Steps for Hardware Optimization

d) Isolate the problem to the specific TRX. This can be done by
locking the suspicious TRX.
e) Check for downlink receive level on each TRX. In some cases the
downlink receive level on a particular TRX may be very low, due to
faulty radio.
f) Request VSWR test to be performed if the problem appears to
be related to poor path balance.
g) Check for improper connectorization, improper antenna
installation. One loose connector could skew the performance of the
entire cell!!!
f) If the problem is not isolated to a bad TRX/ other BTS
hardware further investigations needed to check other possible
faulty hardware in the BSC/XCDR
Physical RF Optimization
A well designed RF is key to good network performance.
More often than not, the actual network built is deviated

from the network designed from the desktop. The variations
are
a) Actual site locations are away from the nominal planned
locations.
b) It is not practicable to build a grid-based network due
to several constraints.
c) Antenna heights may differ from the planned antenna
heights.
Physical RF optimization may be done at several stages of

network rollout.
Physical RF Optimization is an essential requirement during

the network build/pre optimization stages. In most cases the
OEM vendor is responsible for the network during this phase
and he carries out the process to ensure that the actual
network is as near good as the desktop designed one.
The process comprises of conducting a drive test for the

entire cluster, which may comprise of one or several BSC
areas.
The drive test results are plotted on a GIS map and

deficiencies in coverage/interference problems are identified
by plotting Rxlev/Rxqual values.
Most of the coverage deficiencies are fixed by making

changes to antenna heights(rare), bore and tilts.
At later stages parametric optimization is done to bring the

network performance close to desktop design.
RF optimization is also carried out during network expansion

phase, i.e when new site or group of sites are added into the
network.
In many networks RF optimization is also done as a regular

process to maintain good network performance.
RF optimization is helpful in resolving specific coverage

problems or interference problems, cell overreach, no
dominant server issues, etc.
Typical thumb rule to follow while carrying out physical RF

optimization for resolving coverage or interference issues Step 1:- Try tilting the antennas.
Step 2:- Try changing the orientation.
Step 3:- Increase or reduce the height iff
tilt/reorientation does not solve the problem
Step 4:- Change the antenna type as a last resort.
Database/Parameter Optimization
The process starts the moment a GSM network goes on air

and continues on a day-to-day basis, till the network is
operational.
Under GSM each vendor has hundreds of parameters which

can be played with to achieve different performance metrics
under different scenarios.
Usually most of the parameters are enabled with default

settings and are always kept unchanged. However there are
some specific parameters which control the RF performance
which can be changed on a cell or even carrier-level, to
achieve specific improvements.
Database/Parameter Optimization
GSM Features Before proceeding to database parameters,

let us discuss some important GSM features which are
commonly being used in current networks.
GSM networks worldwide are mainly affected by the

following types of problems:- 1) Coverage issues, 2)
Interference issues, 3)Capacity issues.
Interference in GSM networks can be reduced significantly

by using some special features, as mentioned
Frequency Hopping
DTX and Voice Activity Detection
Dynamic Power Control
Database Optimization Frequency Hopping
Frequency hopping is one of the standardised capacity

enhancement features in GSM system. It offers a significant
capacity gain without any costly infrastructure requirements.
Frequency hopping can co-exist with most of the other

capacity enhancement features and in many cases it
significantly boosts the effect of those features.
Frequency hopping can be briefly defined as a sequential

change of carrier frequency on the radio link between the
mobile and the base station.
When frequency hopping is used, the carrier frequency is

changed between each consecutive TDMA frame. This means
that for each connection the change of the frequency may
happen between every burst.
At first, the frequency hopping was used in military

applications in order to improve the secrecy and to make the
system more robust against jamming.
In cellular network, the frequency hopping also provides some

additional benefits such as frequency diversity and
interference diversity.
Frequency
Call is transmitted through several

frequencies in order to
average the interference (interference diversity)
minimise the impact of fading (frequency diversity)
F1
F2
F3
Time
There are two methods of frequency hopping in GSM,

Baseband Frequency Hopping (BB FH) and Synthesised
Frequency Hopping (RF FH).
In the baseband frequency hopping the TRXs operate at

fixed frequencies.
Frequency hopping is generated by switching consecutive

bursts in each time slot through different TRXs according to
the assigned hopping sequence.
The number of frequencies to hop over is determined by the

number of TRXs
The first time slot of the BCCH TRX is not allowed to hop, it
must be excluded from the hopping sequence.
This leads to three different hopping groups.
The first group doesnt hop and it includes only the BCCH
time slot.
The second group consists of the first time slots of the nonBCCH TRXs.
The third group includes time slots one through seven from
every TRX.
Database Optimization Baseband Hopping
RTSL 0
TRX-1
TRX-2
f1
B = BCCH timeslot. It does not hop.
f2
Time slots 1...7 of all TRXs

hop over (f1,f2,f3,f4).
TRX-3
f3
TRX-4
f4
Time slot 0 of TRX-2,-3,-4 hop over f2,f3,f4.
Baseband hopping (BB FH).
Database Optimization RF Hopping
In the synthesised frequency hopping all the TRXs except

the BCCH TRX change their frequency for every TDMA
frame according to the hopping sequence.
Thus the BCCH TRX doesnt hop.
The number of frequencies to hop over is limited to 63, which

is the maximum number of frequencies in the Mobile
Allocation (MA) list.

TRX-1
B = BCCH timeslot. TRX does not hop.
Non-BCCH TRXs are hopping over

f1,
f1,
f2,
. . . .
the MA-list (f1,f2,f3,...,fn) attached to the cell.
f2,
f3,
f3,
fn
fn
TRX-2
Synthesised hopping (RF FH).
The biggest limitation in baseband hopping is that the number

of the hopping frequencies is the same as the number of
TRXs.
In synthesised hopping the number of the hopping

frequencies can be anything between the number of hopping
TRXs and 63.
BB-FH
F1(+ BCCH)
TRX-1
F2
F3
TRX-3
Dig.
MSC
MS does not see

any difference
Frequency
F1
F2
F3
RF
BSC
TCSM
Time
RF-FH
TRX-1
F1, F2, F3
TRX-2
BCCH
Dig.
RF
BB-FH is feasible with large configurations
RF-FH is viable with smaller configurations
The difference between BB and RF FH.
Database Optimization RF Hopping Cell

Allocation
The Cell Allocation (CA) is a list of all the frequencies

allocated to a cell. The CA is transmitted regularly on the
BCCH.
Usually it is also included in the signaling messages that

command the mobile to start using a frequency hopping logical
channel. The cell allocation may be different for each cell.
In PGSM 900 the CA list may include all the 124 available
frequencies [GSM 04.08].
However, the practical limit is 64, since the MA-list can only
point to 64 frequencies that are included in the CA list .
Database Optimization RF Hopping Mobile

Allocation
The MA is a list of hopping frequencies transmitted to a

mobile every time it is assigned to a hopping physical channel.
The MA-list is automatically generated if the baseband

hopping is used.
If the network utilises the RF hopping, the MA-lists have to

be generated for each cell by the network planner.
The MA-list is able to point to 64 of the frequencies defined

in the CA list
However, the BCCH frequency is also included in the CA list,

so the practical maximum number of frequencies in the MAlist is 63.
The frequencies in the MA-list are required to be in

increasing order because of the type of signaling used to
transfer the MA-list.
Database Optimization RF Hopping HSN
The Hopping Sequence Number (HSN) indicates which

hopping sequence of the 64 available is selected.
The hopping sequence determines the order in which the

frequencies in the MA-list are to be used.
The HSNs 1 - 63 are pseudo random sequences used in the

random hopping while the HSN 0 is reserved for a sequential
sequence used in the cyclic hopping.
The hopping sequence algorithm takes HSN and FN as an

input and the output of the hopping sequence generation is a
Mobile Allocation Index (MAI) which is a number ranging
from 0 to the number of frequencies in the MA-list
subtracted by one.
The HSN is a cell specific parameter.
Database Optimization RF Hopping MAIO
When there is more than one TRX in the BTS using the same
MA-list the Mobile Allocation Index Offset (MAIO) is used
to ensure that each TRX uses always an unique frequency.
Each hopping TRX is allocated a different MAIO. MAIO is

added to MAI when the frequency to be used is determined
from the MA-list.
MAIO and HSN are transmitted to a mobile together with

the MA-list.
The MAIOoffset (Nokia) is a cell specific parameter defining
the MAIOTRX for the first hopping TRX in a cell. The MAIOs
for the other hopping TRXs are automatically allocated

according to the MAIOstep-parameter

For this TDMA frame the output from the algorithm is 1
FN & HSN GSM Hopping algorithm
MAI(0...N-1) =
MA INDEX
(MAI)
MA
1
1 + MAIOTRX
MAIOTRX
TRX-1
0
TRX-2
1
TRX-3
2
N-2
N-1
f1
f2
f3
f4
fN-1
fN
TRX-1 TRX-2 TRX-3
MAIOOFFSET ,
User definable
These parameters
are set
automatically

Step
The MAIOstep is a Nokia specific parameter used in the MAIO

allocation to the TRXs.
The MAIO for the first hopping TRXs in each cell is defined by the
cell specific MAIOoffset parameter
MAIOs for the other hopping TRXs are assigned by adding the
MAIOstep to the MAIO of the previous hopping TRX
MAIOTRX(N) =
MAIOoffset + MAIOstep(n-1)

Sector TRX # HSN
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
MAIO stepMAIOoffsetl MAIO
Non-hopping BCCH TRX

7
2
0
0
2
4
7
2
6
6
8
10
7
2
12
12
14
16
+MAIO step
MAIO step indicates the

difference between the MAIOs of
successive TRXs in a cell.
Example of the use of the MAIO related parameters.
Database Optimization RF Hopping Reuse

patterns
When RF Hopping is deployed the BCCH layer is planned using

the standard 4X3 or 7X3 or an intermediate suitable pattern.
Maximum protection is assigned while planning to the BCCH

layer as it is critical to call setup procedure.
For the TCH layer there are mainly three types of widely
used reuse patterns
1X1 All sectors in the network use a single MA list.
1X3 3 MA lists are created. Sec A of each cell uses MAL1,

Sec B uses MAL2 and Sec 3 uses MAL3
Ad-hoc/Mixed SFH Multiple MA lists are used. Can have as

many MA lists as the number of sectors in the network. The
reuse is based on fractional loading * with a maximum loading
factor of 100 %.
Database Optimization RF Hopping Loading

Factor
Loading Factor This is the ratio of no of TRX to the no of

hopping frequencies in the MA list
Loading Factor = No of Hopping TRX/No of Frequencies.
For eg. Loading factor = 50 % if there are 2 TRX and 4

hopping frequencies.
Lowest practically achievable loading factor is 33 %for

1X3, 17 % for 1X1 and highest is 100 % .
Usually 100% loading factor is used in case of ad-hoc RF

hopping, for cells with higher configuration (6-6-6),
however for lower configuration like (2-2-2) 50 %
loading factor could be used.
In case of ad-hoc hopping the loading factor can be

planned to be specific to the cell configuration.
Database Optimization DTX & Power Control
Power control and the DTX are standard GSM features,

which are designed to minimise the interference.
These are mandatory features in the UL, but it is up to the

network operator to decide whether to use them or not.
DTX prevents unnecessary transmissions when there is no

need to transfer information
Power control is used to optimise the transmitted signal

strength so that the signal strength at the receiver is still
adequate.
These features can be individually activated for uplink and

downlink.
Operators have been widely using both features in UL

direction mainly in order to maximise the battery life in
mobiles.
In a non-hopping network these features provide some quality

gain for some users, but this gain cannot be transferred
effectively to increased capacity, since the maximum
interference experienced by each user is likely to remain the
same.
The power control mechanism doesnt function optimally

because the interference sources are stable causing chain
effects where the increase of transmission power of one
transmitter causes worse quality in the interfered receiver,
which in turn causes the power increase in another
transmitter and so on.
This means that, for example, one mobile located in a

coverage limited area may severely limit the possibility of
several other transmitters to reduce their power.
In a non-hopping network these features provide some quality

gain for some users, but this gain cannot be transferred
effectively to increased capacity, since the maximum
interference experienced by each user is likely to remain the
same.
The power control mechanism doesnt function optimally

because the interference sources are stable causing chain
effects where the increase of transmission power of one
transmitter causes worse quality in the interfered receiver,
which in turn causes the power increase in another
transmitter and so on.
This means that, for example, one mobile located in a

coverage limited area may severely limit the possibility of
several other transmitters to reduce their power.
In a random hopping network the quality gain provided by

both features can be efficiently exploited to capacity gain
because the gain is more equally distributed among the users.
Since the typical voice activity factor (also called DTX

factor) is less than 0.5, DTX effectively cuts the network
load in half when it is used.
The power control works more efficiently because each user

has many interference sources. If, one interferer increases
its power, the effect on the quality of the connection is not
seriously affected. In fact, it is probable that some other
interferers are decreasing their powers at the same time.
Thus, the system is more stable and chaining effects
mentioned earlier do not occur frequently.

Reuse 3/9, TU 3km/h
PC on
DTX on
PC on, DTX on
Reuse 3/9, TU 50km/h

GAIN:
1.4 dB
2.3 dB
3.7 dB
PC on
DTX on
PC on, DTX on
GAIN:
1.0 dB
2.3 dB
3.5 dB
C/I improvement
The simulated gain of PC and DTX with FH.
DTX has some effect on the RXQual distribution.
Normally the BER is averaged over the duration of one

SACCH frame lasting 0.48 seconds and consisting of 104
TDMA frames.
However, four of these TDMA frames are used for

measurements, so that only 100 bursts are actually
transmitted and received.
When DTX is in use and there is no speech activity, only the

bursts transmitting the silence descriptor frame (SIDframe) and the SACCH are transmitted.
When there are periods of no speech activity, the BER is

estimated over just the bursts carrying the silence
descriptor frame and the SACCH. This includes only 12
bursts over which the BER is averaged (sub quality).
BER gets averaged much more effectively when DTX is not

used yielding to a quality distribution where the proportion of
moderate quality values is enhanced.
The sub quality distribution is wider than the full quality

distribution, meaning that more good and bad quality samples
are experienced.
The differences between full and sub quality distributions

are largest in frequency hopping networks utilising low
frequency allocation reuse, since in that kind of networks the
interference situation may be very different from burst to
burst.
A couple of severely interfered bursts may cause very bad

quality for the sub quality sample when they happen to occur
in the set of 12 bursts over which the sub quality is
determined.
The full quality sample of the same time period has probably
only moderate quality deterioration because of the better
averaging of BER over 100 bursts.
In a real network utilising DTX the quality distribution is a

mixture of full and sub quality samples.
The proportions of full and sub samples depend on the speech

activity factor also known as the DTX factor.
The differences in the BER averaging processes cause

significant differences in the RXQUAL distributions. These
differences should be taken into account when the RXQUAL
distributions of networks utilising and not utilising DTX are
compared.

1/1 reuse 15 freqs
40.00 %
35.00 %
30.00 %
25.00 %
RxQ full
RxQ sub
20.00 %
15.00 %
10.00 %
5.00 %
0.00 %
Q0
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
The distribution of normal RXQual and subRXQual values in a

frequency hopping network.
Power Control what to optimize??
The parameters to optimize in case of power control are the

window settings.
BS Tx Power
+ 42
- 75
Downlink Rxlev (dBm)
-95
Downlink Power Control Typical Rxlev Window settings
BS Tx Power
+ 42
Downlink RxQual
Downlink Power Control Typical RxQual Window settings
MS Tx Power
+ 33
- 70
Uplink Rxlev (dBm)
-90
Uplink Power Control Typical Rxlev Window settings
Power Control parameters which can be set
Downlink/Uplink Rxlev threshold (l_rxlev_dl_p /

l_rxlev_ul_p)
RxQual threshold(l_rxqual_dl_p / l_rxqual_ul_p)
Power increment/reduction step size

(pow_inc_step_size_dl/pow_red_step_size_d)
Dynamic step adjust algorithm(dyn_step_adj)
Power Control Features
Objective is to reduce average interference
In case of uplink also helps in saving battery power
Algorithm works on measurement reports sent by the MS

every 480 ms (SACCH frame)
Downlink power control cannot be applied to BCCH carrier
Uplink power control is mandatory but downlink power control

is not mandatory. Feature selectable by the operator.
For controlling interference in the network the operator uses

DTX, Power Control and Frequency Hopping. These features
effectively act as combined forces in interference reduction
and improved call quality.
Database Optimization
Typical problems which GSM subscribers experience are
Coverage issues
Voice quality issues
Access issues/congestion
Handover related issues
Dropped calls
BSS Parameters are broadly classified into the following groups
Access related parameters
Call handling/Handover related parameters
Congestion related parameters
Database Optimization IDLE Mode Cell

Selection
The MS uses a "path loss criterion" parameter C1 to

determine whether a cell is suitable to camp on [GSM 03.22]
C1 depends on 4 parameters:
1. Received signal level (suitably averaged)
2. The parameter rxLevAccessMin, which is broadcast on the

BCCH, and is related to the minimum signal that the operator
wants the network to receive when being initially accessed by an
MS
3. The parameter msTxPwrMaxCCH, which is also broadcast on

the BCCH, and is the maximum power that an MS may use when
initially accessing the network
4. The maximum power of the MS.

Selection
Cell Selection in IDLE Mode, based on C1
Radio Criteria
C1 =(A - Max(B,0))
A =Received Level Average- p1
B =p2 - Maximum RF Power of theMobileStation
p1 =rxLevelAccessMin
p2 =msTxPowerMaxCCH

Selection
Cell Reselection
In case of reselection from one cell to another in the same location

area the C1 value of target cell must be higher than source cell
In case of reselection to a target cell in a different location area

the C1 value must be greater than that of the source cell by a
database parameter cell_reselect_hysteresis
Cell Reselection C2
C2 is an option GSM feature which can only be used for cell

reselection, it can be enabled or disabled on a cell basis.
If C2 parameters are not being broadcast the C1 process is used for

reselection.

Selection
Cell Reselection C2
C2= C1 + cell_reselect_offset temporary offset * H

(penalty_time T) (for penalty_time <31)
H= 0 if T > penalty_time
H= 1 if T < penalty_time
C2= C1 cell_reselect_offset (for penalty_time= 31)
Why C2??
Cell Prioritisation
As a means of encouraging MSs to select some suitable cells

in preference to others

Selection
Example of C2 usage
In dualband network-- to give different priorities for

different band
In multilayer-- to give priority to microcell for slow moving

traffic
Any other special case where specific cell required higher

priority than the rest
Cell Reselection Strategy
Positive offset-- encourage MSs to select that cell
Negative offset-- discourage MSs to select that cell for the

duration penalty Time period
Database Optimization Handovers

Handover
The handover (HO) process is one of the fundamental

principles in cellular mobile radio, maintaining the call in
progress whilst the mobile subscriber is moving through the
network.
In idle mode the MS does a cell reselection, whereas in

dedicated mode the MS performs a handover.
Handovers are mainly classified into two types
A) Inter cell handovers
B) Intra cell handovers
Inter cell handovers further classified as
Inter BSS ie between two cells belonging to different

BSCs
Intra BSS ie between two cells belonging to same BSC

Handover
Intra cell handovers is the switching of call from one

channel/TRX to another TRX within the same cell/BTS. This
is an optional feature which can be enabled on a cell basis.
Intra cell handovers usually take place when the Rxqual on
the source channel deteriorates.
Handover process may be initiated due to the following main

reasons
Radio Criteria
To maintain receive level/receive quality
Absolute MS-BS distance
Power Budget
Network Criteria
Traffic load (to manage traffic distribution)
Handovers also classified as imperative/non-imperative based

on the reason for which the process is triggered.
The cause value contained in the handover recognised

message will affect the evaluation process in the BSC.
Handover causes may be prioritized as follows
1. Uplink Quality
2. Uplink Interference
3. Downlink Quality
4. Downlink Interference
5. Uplink Level
6. Downlink Level
7. Distance
8. Power Budget

Power budget handover
If an MS on a allocated resource during its measurement

reporting process sees another channel that would provide an
equal or better quality radio link requiring a lower output
power then a handover may be initiated.
Handovers due to power budget ensure that the MS is always

linked to the cell with minimum pathloss though the quality
and level thresholds may not be exceeded.
Handover to the target cell takes place when PBGT>

hoMarginPBGT
PBGT = (msTxPwrMax Av_Rxlev_DL_HO (btsTxPwrMax

BTS_TXPWR)) (msTxPwrMax(n) Av_Rxlev_NCELL(n))
where n nth adjacent cell which is a handover candidate

Power budget handover
hoMarginPBGT is a parameter which can be set on a cell to

cell basis. Each cell may have a different value for each
neighbour cell which is a candidate for power budget
handover.
hoMargin is expressed in dB and is usually set to 4. However

this may be reduced if the handover needs to be speeded or
increased to 6 or higher to prevent ping-pong or to delay
handovers
In some cases negative homargin may also be used.

Handover Algorithms
Handover algorithms are used in addition to default

parameters to control the handover process
These algorithms assist in mobility management and are

effective in traffic distribution.
The algorithms have an important role to play in GSM

networks which use multi-band or multi-layer architectures.

Handover Algorithms
In Motorola system there are 7 procedures. These are set by

the parameter pbgt_alg_type. The algorithms are briefly
defined as follows:
Type 1 Conventional GSM PBGT
Type 2 Restricted PBGT for macro cells
Type 3 PBGT with Rxlev as qualifier
Type 4 PBGT with time in cell as qualifier
Type 5 PBGT with delay since neighbour level exceeds

threshold as qualifier
Type 6 Delayed power budget using dynamic handover

margin
Type 7 PBGT algorithm to avoid adjacent channel

interference

Handover Algorithms
Of the seven, the most commonly used are Type1, 2, 3 and 7.
Each handover candidate cell can be defined as one of the

seven types of neighbour to the source cell.
Handover per cause
The handover per cause statistic is a counter-array statistic

which counts the reason for each handover event on all cells
for which it is enabled.
This statistic gives important information about the handover

performance of the cells and can be used for troubleshooting
cells which have high handover failure rate.

Handover per neighbour
This statistic gives the value of no of handover attempts as

well as successes for each neighbour cell. This statistic is
also helpful in troubleshooting handover performance, it can
be used to identify neighbour relations which have a high
handover failure rate
The handover per neighbour statistic can also be used for

neighbourlist pruning.
Database Optimization TRHO/Congestion

Related Parameters
TRHO What does it do??
TRHO effectively reduces the service area of the congested

cells
Increases service area of under-utilised target cells
HO is triggered using a special parameter

amhTrhoPbgtMargin instead of hoMarginPbgt
General guideline:
Target cell Rxlevaccessmin should be set higher to

avoid bad downlink Rxqual after HO
amhTrhoPbgtMargin must be lower than hoMarginPbgt

Related Parameters
TRHO/BSC Parameters
amhUpperloadthreshold This parameter determines

minimum traffic load threshold at which cell starts to intiate
TRHO default value 80 %
amhMaxLoadOfTargetCell This parameter determines

maximum traffic load threshold beyond which target cell will
not accept TRHO hand-ins default value 60 %
TRHO/BTS Parameters
amhTrhoPbgtMargin This parameter is new Pbgt margin

when cell exceeds amhUpperloadthresh. Its the revised
power budget margin which replaces the normal Pbgt
definition when the Trho criteria are met default value is 5
dB.

Related Parameters
TRHO/Adjacency Parameters
trhoTargetLevel This parameter determines the minimum

RSSI of the valid target cell candidate reported by the
mobile default is 85 dBm

Related Parameters
Directed Retry
A transition (handover) from SDCCH in one cell to a TCH in

another cell during call setup due to unavailability of an empty
TCH within the first cell.
To control traffic distribution between cells to avoid a call

rejection.
Can be used for both MOC and MTC
Setting guidelines:
drThreshold should be higher than Rxlevmincell

(Rxlevaccessmin); else the improved target cell selection
criteria will be ignored.

Related Parameters
Congestion Relief
This procedure is initiated when an MS is assigned to an

SDCCH, requires a TCH and none are available.
Two options are offered for deciding how many handover

procedures are actually initiated.
First Option The no. of HO procedures initiated is at most

the no. of outstanding requests for a TCH.
Second Option This allows for initiation of a HO procedure

for each MS that meets the modified criteria to support the
feature.
RF Optimization Analysis and troubleshooting

Things which normally subscribers normally experience
(common problems)
No coverage/poor coverage issues.
Dropped calls.
Failed handovers/Dominant server issues.
Breaks in speech/crackling sound or bad voice quality.
Access related problems Network Busy.
Often all the above problems are addressed to the RF

optimization team for resolution
RF Optimization Poor Coverage Issues

Poor Coverage Issues
Coverage problems are one of the most concerning issues.
Subscribers experience a No network or Network Search

scenarios on the fringe area of the cells.
Mostly these problems are experienced in suburban areas and

also in many cases inbuilding coverage problems occur.
Analysis is simple
TEMS equipment/test phone displays Rxlev of serving cell

and neighbour cells Generally problem occurs when Rxlev
drops below 95 dBm. When the Rxlev drops to 100 dBm or
lower the subscriber experiences a fluctuating single bar or
a network search scenario.
When Rxlev (DL) drops below 95 dBm its very difficult to

have successful call setup, as typically the uplink Rxlev would
be much lower.
RF Optimization Poor Coverage Issues

Poor Coverage Issues (Steps to solve the problem)
Analyze the extent of area which is experiencing a coverage

problem
Can this be solved by physical optimization??
Possible steps would be to improve the existing serving cell

strength by proper antenna orientation or up-tilting the
antenna.
If it is an indoor coverage/limited area coverage issue, this

could be resolved by deploying a repeater/micro cell if the
traffic requirement in the question area is high.
In case of rural/suburban cells where the concern is a weak

uplink TMA could be installed.
RF Optimization Drop Call Troubleshooting

Dropped Calls
Dropped calls may be attributed to several reasons.
Usually categorized as
Drop during call setup aka SDCCH Drop.
Drop during call progress aka TCH Drop.
Drop due to failed handovers with no recovery.
Call drops may occur due to RF/non RF reasons.
RF Reasons attributing to dropped calls
Weak coverage RL timer times out.
Interference low C/I bad Rxqual RL timer times out.
Faulty TRX resulting in low C/I call may drop during

setup or after TCH assignment RL timer may/may not
time out.
RF Optimization Drop Call Troubleshooting

Dropped Calls
Non RF Reasons
Switch related MS experiences a Downlink Disconnect

abnormal release, usually with a Cause Value.
CV 47 is a common example Layer 3 message DL

Disconnect.
Non RF related call drops need to be escalated to isolate

the fault which could be related to the switch/transcoder
or at any point in the Abis/A Interface.
RF Optimization Handover Problems

Handover Failures/Problems
Handover failures may also be attributed to different

reasons.
Usually occur due to RF reasons.
Common RF reasons for handover failures
Interference Co BCCH/Co BSIC issue.
Faulty hardware on target cell.
Improper neighbourlist definition
Steps to identify and solve Handover issues.
Use TEMS (layer 3 messages) to identify the cell to which

the MS attempts handover and results in a failure

The sequence of layer 3 messages
Handover Command
Handover Access
Handover Complete
Handover Failure
Sometimes the sequence of messages would be
Handover Command
Handover Access
Handover Failure

The Handover Command message contains information about

the BCCH and BSIC of the target cell to which the handover
was attempted. Check for any possible Co BCCH/Co BSIC
interferers.
Check for possible hardware faults on the target cell.
Neighbourlist problems
Sometimes handover problems occur due to improper

neighbourlist definition.
Neighbour Rxlevel are reported to be strong, but Handover

Command does not get initiated.
Call drags on the source cell and in some situation drops.
Most common cause is improper definition of neighbour

BSIC/BCCH

Neighbourlist Problems
Crosscheck with RF BSC dump to confirm the BCCH/BSIC

and other parameters of the target cell.
Report any inconsistencies to the OMCR personnel.
RF Optimization Special Tools

Traditional RF Optimization
Traditional RF Optimization involves drive testing for data

collection
Drive testing is periodically done to monitor the network

performance
Mainly two types a)Long call continuous data collection

b) Short call for statistical analysis
Drive tests provide inputs for optimizing coverage and quality

of the network.
Usage of simulation/coverage prediction tools like PLANET,

ASSET, NETPLAN, etc.
Usually the simulation tool also contains an AFP component or

is available as a separate tool.

Traditional RF Optimization
Simulation tools work on standard prediction models.
Variety of standard models could be used Okumura Hata,

Lees model, Cost 231, etc.
Some tools have customized models (e.g Motorola Netplan

uses XLOS model which works on virtual heights)
Inputs used by the prediction tool digital terrain data,

clutter data, in some cases clutter heights.
Model tuning process a must to achieve near accurate

predictions from the tool.

Limitations of Traditional RF Optimization
Drive test data only simulates traffic generated from onroad subscribers. Indoor traffic is not simulated!!
Simulation tools work in a GIGO(garbage in garbage out)

fashion.
The model generated by a simulation tool highly depends on

the accuracy of the input data (terrain, clutter data,etc.).
Clutter/buildings change continuously needs to be updated
often.
Often tedious and iterative process.
Optimization works on a trial-and-error basis.
For good results its necessary to have detailed local

knowledge of city, subscribers, terrain, clutter.

Solution??
OEM vendors/Third Party vendors have developed special

tools which make the optimization process simpler.
These tools work on mobile statistics aka measurement

reports
The measurement reports are sent by each MS in the

network every 480 milliseconds.
The MRs provide accurate information about the network as

seen by the MS
MRs have information about serving cell and 6 neighbour cells
This information can be used effectively for generating a

model which is much more accurate than prediction model
generated by standard prediction tools.

Solution??
MRs are generated by all subscribers on road, inbuilding, fast

moving, slow moving, etc.
Example of tools which work on measurement reports/mobile

statistics currently available
IOS (Intelligent Optimisation Services) patented by

Motorola.
SCHEMA GSM Forte.
Worldwide many GSM operators have opted for these tools

and have found satisfactory results.
RF Optimization Special Tools - IOS

MOTOROLA IOS
Motorola Inc has developed a very powerful tool.
Initially known as IOP (Intelligent Optimization Product)
Currently Motorola markets it as a service hence IOS

(Intelligent Optimization Service)
This tool is an integration of
Powerful collection platform which connects to BSS and

interrogates the BSS for collection of MRs
Analysis platform which includes integration of CTP(call

trace product), Cellopt AFP.
Cellopt AFP uses interference matrix generated using the

MRs
Easy to use Windows NT GUI
RF Optimization Special Tools - IOS

MOTOROLA IOS
Motorola IOS cycles can be run to conduct the following

optimization activities
Hardware Optimization
Neighbourlist Optimization
Physical Optimization
Frequency Plan (fixed, hopping, various patterns)
Motorola is in process of conducting trials for MVIOS

(Multivendor IOS) which supports other OEM vendors like
Nokia, Ericsson, etc.
RF Optimization Special Tools Schema GSM

Forte
SCHEMA GSM FORTE
SCHEMA(based in ISRAEL) has developed an efficient

product called GSM Forte
This tool also uses mobile statistics/measurement reports.
GSM Forte currently supports Nokia, Ericsson and Alcatel.

Development is ongoing to support other vendors like Nortel,
Siemens, etc.
GSM Forte also uses interference matrix generated from

mobile statistics. The product offers
Frequency Plan Optimization
Neighbourlist Optimization
Database parameter Optimization (will be included in

future versions)
RF Optimization Special Tools Schema GSM

Forte
SCHEMA GSM FORTE
GSM Forte has been widely adopted by several GSM

operators across the globe.
Effective in generating fast and accurate frequency plans and

day to day neighbourlist optimization.
Hutch India major customer in India.
Strategic partnership with GTL for providing presales, post

sales, tech-support, premium services to its various
customers in India and other regions.
Succesfully implemented trial optimization project and 2

premium services project.!! These projects were
independently implemented by us.
THANK YOU
www.gtllimited.com

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Understanding the RF Network Cycle

Spreadsheet Design ...

CW Drive Test/ Model Tuning...

CW Drive Test/ Model Tuning...

CW Drive Test/ Model Tuning...

Search rings form a basis for further surveys to be

RF Site Survey/Drive Testing

RF Planning The REAL Challenge!!!

Traffic Planning/Expansion Planning

Two stages for Capacity Planning I) Initial Network Build II)

Initial Capacity Plan

Spreadsheet design is used.

The expected traffic is calculated based on a certain

The total traffic requirement is traffic per subscriber X

Network capacity is based on a certain GOS say 2 %.

Erlang B table used to calculate the no. of TRX, hence no

Traffic Planning/Expansion Planning

Two stages for Capacity Planning I) Initial Network Build

This can also be done using spreadsheet design

Alternatively TRX additions are done on an ad-hoc basis

In cases where no further TRX addition is practicable,

Separate planning is done for Traffic Channels(TCH) and

Mobile Communications Propagation

Lfsl = 32.4 + 20 log d(in Kms)+ 20logf(in Mhz)

Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon a

Reflections occur from surface of earth, buildings,walls and water.

The wave is partially absorbed and partially reflected.

Amount of absorption will depend on the reflection coefficient of the

Analytical formula, only valid for larger distances ( > 10 Km)

Reflection in actual mobile environment , would be from multiple paths.

Huygen's principle on phenomenon of diffraction

Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary wavelets

Smooth Sphere Diffraction

Smooth Sphere Diffraction

Diffraction takes place through almost a flat surface.

Knife Edge Diffraction

Hills, Mountains, Buildings will cause knife edge diffraction

Calculation of Diffraction Loss

Calculation of Diffraction Loss

From "v" , we can compute the diffraction loss.

( all values in "m" )

Calculation of Diffraction Loss

Knife edge diffraction gain (GadB)

Fresnel diffraction parameter v

Radio wave when impinges on a rough surface , reflected energy

Path Loss Prediction

Realistic method of prediction would be to use empirical data of radio

Okumura developed a set of curves giving the attenuation in excess to

Path Loss = Lfsl + A(f,d) - G(hte) - G(hre)

1000m > hte > 10m

Okumura curves are only applicable for urban areas.

For other terrain's, Okumura has provided correction factors.

The correction factors are provided for 3 types of terrain in the

Open Area : corresponds to a rural , desert kind of terrain

Quasi Open Area : corresponds to rural , countryside kind of terrain

Path Loss(o,q,s) = Lfsl + A(f,d) - G(hte) - G(hre) - G(area)

Hata model is an empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data

a(hre) = 3.2 ( log 11.75 hre ) - 4.97

L(sub) = L (urban) - 2 [ log (fc/28) ] - 5.4

Loss for Rural Open Area

L(ro) = L (urban) - 4.78 ( log fc) - 18.33log fc - 40.94