EARTHING:

1. Connecting the electrical equipment to the general mass of the

earth which has a very low resistance is called earthing. The earth
can absorb millions of amperes of current, as it is a good
conductor containing soluble salts and moisture.
It also acts as a good insulator when containing silica and
alumina.
2. When a pipe is driven into the earth, the earth surrounding the
pipe can be considered to be consisting of concentric cylinders of
earth which will be bigger in size and area, as they are away from
the pipe. The current can travel into the earth with large area
having little resistance.
3. 3 M length of electrode will have contact with the earth area of 3
M in radius. Hence to have better effect 3 M pipes should be fixed
at a distance of 6 M (i.e.) twice the distance of pipe lengths.

4. Moisture content is one of the controlling factors in earth

resistivity. Above about 20% moisture the resistivity is very little
affected, while below about 20%, the resistivity increases very
abruptly with decrease in moisture. Hence average moisture
content may be 16% to 18% by weight of dry soil.
5. (i) As we go deeper, the earth contains more moisture and
soluble salts and hence lesser resistance.
(ii) If the diameter of earth pipe is increased from 12 mm
to 25 mm, there will be 10% reduction in resistance.
But the weight and cost will be fourfold.
6. Temperature co-efficient of resistivity for soil is negative,
but is negligible above freezing point. At about 20oC the resistivity
change is 9% per degree Celsius. Below 0oC the resistivity rises
enormously. Hence in such areas pipe should be driven below the
frost line.

7. 90% of resistance between pipe and earth lies with a radius of about 2
Metres from the pipe/rod. Hence for improving earth resistivity by
artificial treatment of soil, excavation of one metre diameter around
top of the rod/pipe to 30 CM deep and applying the artificial agent
like Sodium Chloride, Calcium Chloride, Sodium Carbonate or
Copper Sulphate and watering sufficiently, will be effective.

EARTHING IN SUB STATION:

1. Earthing is important not only for the proper functioning of the
electrical system, but also for safety of the operating personnels
and equipment.
2. The object of a good earthing system is to provide under and
around the station, a surface with zero earth potential. The
provision of such a surface under and around the sub station
ensures that the sub station operation is not subjected to shock on
injury on the occurrence of short circuit or development of other
abnormal condition in the equipment handled by him.

3.

The primary requirement of a good earthing system in a

sub station are:
(a)

It should stabilize circuit potential with respect to

ground and limit the overall potential rise.

(b)

It should protect men and materials from injury or

damage due to over voltage.

(c)

It should provide a low impedance path to fault

currents to ensure prompt and consistent operation
of protective devices.

(d)

It should keep the maximum voltage gradient along

the surface inside and around the substation within
safe limits during ground fault.

FACTORS WHICH DETERMINE RESISTIVITY OF SOIL:

(a) Type of Soil
(b) Moisture Content
(c) Chemical Composition of Salt dissolved in the
contained water.
(d) Concentration of Salts
(e) Temperature of Materials
(f) Grain size and distribution of grain size
(g) Closeness of packing
TYPE OF SOIL
1. Loamy Garden Soil
2. Clay
3. Clay, Sand and Gravel Mix
4. Sand and Gravel
5. Slates, Slab Sand Stone
6. Crystalline Rocks

RESISTIVITY IN Ohm-Cm
500 5,000
800 5,000
4,000 25,000
6,000 10,000
1,000 50,000
20,000 1,00,000

Where there is any option, a site should be chosen in the order of

preference shown below:
(a) Wet marshy ground
(b) Clay loamy soil, arable land, clayey soil, clayey soil or
room mixed with small quantity of sand
(c) Clay and loom mixed unit varying proposition of sand,
growl and stores
(d) Damp and wet sand pit

IMPROVING EARTH RESISTANCE:

Powdered charcoal and salt put surrounding the earth pipe. Calcium
chloride, magnesium sulphate may be administered. If salt is put corrosion of
pipes will be earlier.
Use of Bentonite Powder in Soil Treatment:
1. Bentonite is a clay with outstanding electrical properties. It swells to
several times its original volume when suspended in water; it binds the
water of crystallization and the water absorbed during the mixing
process is retained over a long period. Bentonite suspension in water
when used to surround the earth electrode virtually increases the
electrode surface area.
2. Use of bentonite around the earth electrode results in reduction of
ground resistance by
about 25-30.
3. Bentonite has a tremendous capacity to absorb water and retain it over
along period. The best results are obtained by mixing bentonite with a
very large quantity of water, say in the ratio
of 1 : 4.

4. A cover of bentonite power for 300 mm dia. Around the electrode

would be adequate in most of the cases to obtain a significant reduction
in earth resistance.
5. Even during the summer months, bentonite suspension retains the
moisture where as the natural soil dries up.
6. Bentonite or similar material may be used to advantage in rocky
terrain.

Use of Fly Ash in Soil Treatment:

Recent CPRI studies reveals that Fly Ash from Thermal Stations has
equivalent chemical composition and hence can be used for the electrical
installations in areas of high ground resistivity. Fly Ash can also be used as
a chemical treatment material to reduce soil resistivity when compared to
bentonite and salt charcoal combination.

CORROSION:
On an average steel corrodes about six times faster than copper
when placed in soil, the extent of corrosion depending upon the
properties of the soil. Even though soils have conflicting properties, a
fair degree of correlation has been found between electrical resistivity
of soil and corrosiveness. The generally accepted correlation between
resistivity of soil and its corrosivity is indicated in the Table below:
Range of Soil Resistivity
(ohm meter)

Class of Soil

Less than 25
25 50
50 100
Above 100

Severally Corrosive
Moderately Corrosive
Mildly Corrosive
Very Mildly Corrosive

(a)

Provide Cathodic Protection.

(b)

Use cement conducting corrosion resistent coating on steel

(e.g. Zinc Coating)

(c)

Use steel conductor with large cross section having allowance for corrosion.

EARTH CONNECTIONS:
Main joints should not have been less than 150 sq mm.
Other joints should not have been less than 65 sq mm.
Joints are braced or welded. Welds should be treated with
Barium chromate and welded surface painted with red lead and
Aluminium paint and afterwards coated with Bitumen.

Combined earth resistance:

Power House

0.5 ohm

Major S.S.

1.0 ohm

Other S.S.

2.0 ohm

Distribution Transformer

5.0 ohm

EARTHING IN SERVICE CONNECTIONS:

At the place of availing service connection one earth terminal
should be provided for the use of the consumer. That terminal should be
copper plate of 32 x 3 mm size with provision for three 15 mm bolt &
nuts.
Neutral wire should be connected to one bolt, service connection
bearer wire should be connected to the second bolt and consumer earth
wire to the third bolt. Consumer earth wire should be taken to all the
third pins of the power pin sockets in the wiring.
Bearer or earth return wire should not be taken as neutral wire.
No separate earth pit is to be maintained at consumers premises, where
only light and fans are connected, provided our Neutral is pucca
Multiple earthed Neutral system. If however equipments, or home need
appliances are there, earch connections should be made to a separate
earth pit, the leads taken through PVC pipe and any earth connection
being in accessible to touch.

TOUCH POTENTIAL:
If a man touches the metal part of an equipment during fault, the
maximum potential difference that will exist between
hand and foot is called TOUCH POTENTIAL.
STEP POTENTIAL:
The maximum potential difference between legs of a man
when standing on the ground the pace being 1 meter is called STEP
POTENTIAL.
TRANSFER POTENTIAL:
This is the maximum potential difference between the equipment
other than electrical equipment, like water line, fencing etc. to the
ground not connected directly to the equipment or earthing system.

Determine the tolerable touch and step potentials:

These potentials very depending on the body weights,
thickness and resistivity of surface layer and duration of shock
currents and the same for persons with average weight of 50 Kgs are
given below:
E touch = [1000 + 1.5 Cs (hsK) ps] 0.116 / ts
F Step

= [1000 + 6 Cs (hsK) ps]

0.116 / ts

Where C = 1 for crushed rock having resistivity equal to that

of soil. If crushed rock resistivity does not equal that of soil, reference
may be made to fig. 1 for obtaining the value of Cs.
ps
p
K
ts

=
=
=
=

Resistivity of surface layer in Ohm-meter

Resistivity of soil in Ohm-meter.
p ps / p + ps
Duration of shock current flow in seconds.

EFFECT OF BODY CURRENT:

Common physiological effect due to current on body
(1) Perception
(2) Muscular contraction
(3) Unconsciousness
(4) Fibrillation of heart and burning
1mA
:
1 mA 6 mA :
9 mA 25 mA :
:
60-100 mA

recognized threshold of perception

let go current
Current may be painful
further higher current result in muscular contraction
and makes breaking difficult
ventricular Fibrillation or stoppage of heart
functioning may occur.

SAFE BODY CURRENT:

I

= 0.165 for t < 3 sec. And

t
= 9 m.A. for t > 3 sec where t is the time duration of stock
which may vary from 8 m sec. to 3 seconds.

As per revised IEEE Std 80

I

= 0.116 / t for body weight 55 kg.

= 0.165 / t for body weight 70 kg.

The human body can withstand (lk) fibrillation currents for a time t. lk
(tolerable current) is inversely proportional to square root of duration
of shock or exposure (t)
lk x t.5 = 0.116 or lk = 0.116/t.5.
The fibrillation limit of withstandable current is 116 milliamps if
duration of shock (t) is one second.
Resistivity
of soil
at site

Max tolerable step/touch

potential for 1 sec,
s = 3000 & hs = 100 mm

Potential out of col (4) actually applied to

human body after the potential drop in top
layer (100 mm) stone

Step
(4a)
Volt

touch
(4b)
Volt

Step
(5a)
Volt

touch
(5b)
Volt

50

1229

386

64.6

70.2

100

1250

391

65.7

71.1

150

1271

396

66.8

72.0

HT
Distribution
Transformer

R
Y
B
N

LT

R2 Contact

R1 Contact

Earth (Ground)
IF =

RS

V
( R1 Contact + RS +
R Line +R Soil Contact + R
Electrode +

R Line

R2 Contact )

R Electrode
Earth Pipe

R Soil Contact
Remote Earth

R
180 Amps

240 V

V
0
24

B 180 Amps

24
0V

180 Amps Y

180 Amps
190 V

V
0
28

B 100 Amps

28
0V

100 Amps Y

R
180 Amps
245 V
N

Nl
NN
V
0
26
B 90 Amps

23
5V

190 Amps Y

N l is THE SHIFTED NEUTRAL and N is THE ACTUAL NEUTRAL

N N l IS THE VOLTAGE IN THE NEUTRAL DUE TO SHIFTING

PHASOR DIAGRAM OF TRANSFORMER WITHOUT NEUTRAL

EARTHING IN UNBALANCED LOAD
R

160 Amps
255 V

Nl
N

B 90 Amps

V
0
30

17
5V

190 Amps Y

N l is THE SHIFTED NEUTRAL and N is THE ACTUAL NEUTRAL

N N l IS THE VOLTAGE IN THE NEUTRAL DUE TO SHIFTING

MECHANICAL ANALOGY FOR BALANCED LOAD

WITHOUT NEUTRAL EARTHING
Hinge

Spring
Tension 240
Kg/CM 2

Spring
Tension 240
Kg/CM 2
Hinge

N
TO
10 LL
PU

N
O
T L
0
1 L
PU

10 TON
PULL

Spring
Tension 240
Kg/CM 2
Hinge

MECHANICAL ANALOGY FOR UNBALANCED LOAD

(EQUIVALENT TO NEUTRAL NOT EARTHED )
Hinge
Spring Tension
180 Kg/CM 2
30 TON

300 Kg/CM 2

Hinge

N
O
T
0
1

ON
20 T

Spring Tension

Spring Tension
250 Kg/CM 2

Hinge

MECHANICAL ANALOGY FOR UNBALANCED LOAD WITH

NEUTRAL EARTHING
Hinge

Initial Tension of Spring

240 Kg/CM 2

of Spring 240
Kg/CM 2
Hinge

Crow Bar Driven

in to the soil
N oad
TO L
20 LL
PU

d
N
a
O Lo
T
10 LL
U
P
Initial Tension

30 TON
PULL Load

Initial Tension o
Spring 240
Kg/CM 2
Hinge

DANGERS OF IMPERFECT EARTHING:

(a) If the Transformer neutral is not earthed properly, in the event of
an earth fault in the system a condition known as arcing ground
will occur resulting in high voltages.
(b) If lightning arrester earth is not proper, in the event of lightning
discharge, the lightning arrester will become
in-effective and this may cause injury elsewhere in the equipment.
(c) In case AB switch handle is not earthed properly, during
the operation of the AB switch, the touch voltage limits
may get exceeded and cause injury to the operator.
(d) In effective earthing in a distribution system may, not only result in
life hazards but also may affect metering.

PRECAUTIONS:

Always see that earthing requirement are observed without any

compromise.

Never use an earth return to serve as neutral when tapping single

phase supply.

Consumer neutral must always be maintained pucca and proper

linkage with the system neutral ensured.

Remember that earth wire will carry current during fault

conditions and hence adequate size of the wire should be
used for earthing.

Remember the removal of the earth or improper maintenance of

the earth system will cause single voltages
at some points which may cause overfluxing conditions on
the feeding Power Transformer and cause irrepairable damages
inside the Power Transformers.

PRESENTATION ON
VAR COMPENSATION AND PF IMPROVEMENT

INPHASE and OUT OF PHASE LOAD CURRENTS I TO VOLTAGE V

I R INPHASE WITH VOLTAGE

IR
V

I L (Inductive
Current) Lagging

IL

I ( Load Current )

INPHASE & OUT OF PHASE LOAD CURRENTS

IC

AFTER INTRODUCTION OF CAPACITOR

Leading current due
to capacitor

I R INPHASE

IL OUT
OF PHASE
DUE TO
INDUCTANCE

IL

I load
( with
Capacitor)

I load

IMPROVEMENT OF RECEIVING END VOLTAGE DUE TO

INSTALLATION OF CAPACITORS
PF IMPROVEMENT
Es
Ic
IX

KW

ER

ER

I
IR

Kvar
I

IX
IR

PHASOR DIAGRAM OF PLANT OPERATING AT A LAGGING

POWER FACTOR

Apparent Power (KVA)

REATIVE POWER

(KVAR)

Useful Power OR Active Power (KW)

POWER FACTOR ( COS= (Useful Power / Apparent Power) = KW / KVA

Power factor correction by adding leading KVAR

Leading KVAR
Added
Useful Power (KW)
Resulting
Effective
KVAR

Initial Load
KVAR

Apparent Power (KVA)

Before Correction

Reduced Apparent
Power

PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR CAPACITY RELEASE DUE TO SHUNT CAPACITORS

l
na
o
i
dit
d
A
A
MV

AP

TP
N
RE
A
P

R
WE

A)
V
M

REACTIVE
POWER

RP

ACTIVE POWER
(MW)
Additional MW

MECHANICAL ANALOGY FOR POWER FACTOR AND

REACTIVE POWER
10 TON

10 TON

TRAIN

POWER FACTOR = 10/10 = 1

12 TON

TRAIN CAR

POWER FACTOR =10/12 = 0.83

DUE TO ANGLE
ADDITIONAL 2 TON IS
REQUIRED FOR MOVING THE TRAIN CAR

MECHANICAL ANALOGY FOR REACTIVE POWER

SPEED 60 KM / Hr.
SPEED 60 KM/Hr.
12 HP
10 HP

POWER FACTOR =10/10= 1

Reactive Power
POWER FACTOR =10/12= 0.83

WHICH IS BENEFICIAL TO E.B & CONSUMER..

50 %
66.5 A
50 %
66.5 A
PF: 0.707

FOAM
FETCHES NO
REVENUE
Equivalent to Kvar
(Reactive Power )

COCA COLA

32 %
42.5 A
68 %
90.5 A
PF: 0.95

FETCHES REVENUE

Equivalent to KW
( Active Power )

BOTH CUPS ARE FULL WITH FOAM AND COCA COLA

THIS IS SIMILAR TO TRANSFORMERS LOADED TO FULL CAPACITY OF Kvar &
KW ( 100 KVA 133 Amps)

THANK YOU