Sense relations:

Collocation and Idioms

Lexical semantics tries to understand the meaning

of words in terms of their association with other
words
1. in terms of value (Saussures notion, in Palmer,
67-68) :

Sheep (in English) has different value from

Mouton (in French), because English also has mutton

Similarly, nasi has different value from rice in
English, because BI also has beras which is also
rice in English
Different languages deal with fields of color, kinships, etc
differently

2. Paradigmatic vs syntagmatic relations

Paradigmatic theory (by Trier) and
Syntagmatic theory (by Porzig in Palmer,75)
Paradigmatic relations are those into which a
linguistic unit enters through being contrasted
or substitutable, in a particular environment,
with other similar units.
Syntagmatic unit relations are those that a
unit contracts by virtue of its co-occurrence
with similar units

E.g. red door vs. green door

Red and green are paradigmatic relation
to each other
Each is in a Syntagmatic relation with
door:

From the Saussurian proposition that the

individual symbol is arbitrary and dependent
for its comprehensibility on the language
system (langue) of which it is a part, it
follows that the inter-relationships of symbols
within this system is of crucial concern.
Saussure argued that these relationships could
be classified into a horizontal - linear sequential arrangement - thesyntagmatic;
and a vertical - non-linear - associative one
that relies on links forged by memory,
custom, and culture - theparadigmatic.

At phonological level
paradigmatic (vertical) axis
/b

t/

syntagmatic axis

we are obliged to utter the the particular phonemes in

that order; any other order would make the sequence
unacceptable or entirely different in meaning

At lexical level
paradigmatic (vertical) axis

red

door

green

door

blonde*

door

syntagmatic (horizontal) axis

Red, green, blonde, etc belong to the same semantic

field of color, yet syntagmatically, blonde is
restricted to combine with door---RANGE of meaning

at syntactical level
paradigmatic (vertical) axis

The cat

sat

on the mat

The dog

sat

him*

The cat

meow

The dog

meow* blue and red/silently*

syntagmatic (horizontal) axis

At syntactical level
paradigmatic (vertical) axis

He

frightened the man on the corner

the mice
the stone*
purple*
in*

syntagmatic (horizontal) axis

Another explanation....

...

The syntagmatic relations which define the

constituenthe frightenedpermit it to be
followed only by certain types of constituent.
Our knowledge of syntagmatic relations
enables us to define forhe frighteneda
paradigmatic class of items which can follow
it. These items are in paradigmatic contrast
with one another, and to choose one is to
produce meaning by excluding others. (Culler,
J. (1976)SaussureLondon: Fontana, p. 49.)

Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations together

constitute the identity of an item within the linguistic
systems as a whole. In other words, every linguistic
item (phoneme, morpheme, word, etc.) can be
characterized or identified by:

1. Where it is able to occur sequentially with other

units (its distribution), and

2. referring to the set of terms with which it can be

interchanged (substituted).

Paradigmatic relations create Semantic fields.

It is defined as an area of meaning containing words

with related sense.

For example, the following terms which come in the

sense of income or earnings form one semantic field:
pay, wage, salary, fee, stipend, pension, retainer, etc.

All these terms form a semantic field since they are paradigmatically
related to each other:

- John received his salary/ wage /stipend /

Thus, there are two major criteria for a set of words to form a semantic
field:

1. The words must be paradigmatically related.

2. They must be close in meaning (they must hold lexical or sense

relations).

pension, etc.

However.....

The paradigmatic units (often called class/semantic

field) are incompatible to the real world; the same
referent cannot use different words of the same class

She went there on Sunday / Monday

But in reality you cannot say She went on Monday for a fact
that she went on Sunday

A red door is a red door

Syntagmatic relations refer to a word ability to combine

with other words; they are the collocational relations:
the company that a word keepsis also a part of the
meaning of word (Firth)

Bite and teeth; bark and dog; or blond and hair

Dog barks but not dog meows

Blond hair but not blond door (although the color of the door
is like that of the hair)

Collocation is not simply a matter of association

of ideas; although collocation is largely
determined by meaning, it is sometimes cannot
easily be predicted in terms of the meaning of the
associated wordscannot easily be explained
semantically :

Milk is white; but, we hardly say white milk

Coffee is brown or black (?), but, we may say white coffee,

similarly with white wine which is not white, but with the
lightest of the normal colors associated with the entity

Is this similar in meaning with that white coffee in Indonesian

context ?

Note: to discuss further later the difference of compound and

phrase. Consider this: white-collar and white collar

several different types of

Below
you can see seven main types of collocation in sample sentences.
collocation.
1. adverb + adjective
Invading that country was an utterly stupid thing to do.
We entered a richly decorated room.
Are you fully aware of the implications of your action?
2. adjective + noun
The doctor ordered him to take regular exercise.
The Titanic sank on its maiden voyage.
He was writhing on the ground in excruciating pain.
3. noun + noun
Let's give Mr Jones a round of applause.
The ceasefire agreement came into effect at 11am.
I'd like to buy two bars of soap please.

4. noun + verb
The lion started to roar when it heard the
dog barking.
Snow was falling as our plane took off.
The bomb went off when he started the
car engine.
5. verb + noun
The prisoner was hanged for committing
murder.
I always try to do my homework in the
morning, after making my bed.
He has been asked to give a presentation
about his work.

6. verb + expression with preposition

We had to return home because we had run out of money.
At first her eyes filled with horror, and then she burst into
tears.
Their behaviour was enough to drive anybody to crime.
7. verb + adverb
She placed her keys gently on the table and sat down.
Mary whispered softly in John's ear.
I vaguely remember that it was growing dark when we
left.

(source: www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/collacationsamples.htm

3 kinds of collocational restriction

A. based wholly on the meaning of the item which is

completely unlikely: green cow , beautiful test, etc

B. some are based on range a word may be used with a

whole set of words that have some semantic features in
common: The Rhododendron passed away, the unlikeliness
is understood

C. some restrictions are collocationally strictest, neither

meaning nor range: white wine are acceptable, but not
white milk

Idioms

An idiom or idiomatic expression refers to a

construction of words or expression different
from the ordinary meaning of the words.

The context can help you understand what an

idiom means.

Example: "She has a bee in

her bonnet," meaning "she
is obsessed," cannot be
literally translated into
another language word for
word.

Idioms involve collocation which is not

related to the meaning of the individual
words.
Idioms is semantically like a single word
E.g. kick the bucket equal to die
But it does not function like one
Semantic restrictionnot kick the pail
syntactic restrictions in idioms:
not kick the bucketed but kicked the bucket
(in terms of past tense)
spill the beans but not spill the bean (in terms
of singular/plural)

Nor passivethe bucket was kicked; but some idioms

are possible: the beans have been spilled
The restrictions vary from idiom to idiom: some are more
restricted or frozen than others
Find out the restrictions of raining cats and dogs !

Idioms (continued)

An expression that carries a different meaning because of

the context in which it is used

slang terms

Examples
Up the creek without a paddle
On top of the world
Fingers crossed
Shake a leg or Break a leg
Put a lid on it
Its raining cats and dogs

Phrasal verbs

(a) A combination of verb + adverb: make up; give in;

put down;

(b) A combination of verb + preposition: look after; go

for; ..

(c) A combination of verb + adverb + preposition: put up

with; do away with;

Some of these combinations are idiomatic some are not

The meaning of idiomatic phrasal verbs can not be

predicted from the individual verb and adverb;

it is less idiomatic when the meaning of the phrases can be

predicted from the elements of the phraseit has literal
sense

PHRASAL VERBS WITH LITERAL

AND IDIOMATIC MEANING

I always put out the cat at night.

Put out the

cigarette,please.
(extinguish
)

Group assignment-4
1.
2.

Find one sentence using collocation of each of the 7

types of collocation
Which phrasal verbs are idiomatic and which are
literal?
Please pick up the CD for me !
I picked up some new slang words in that film
Take off that funny hat! You look stupid in it!
The plane took off 10 minutes ago
3. Find 5 examples of idiomatic phrasal verbs
How would you find their meanings in dictionary ?
How are they restricted in usage ?

4. Analyze the following :

let their hair down;bite your tongue
eat my hat; throw her weight around
put his foot in his mouth
a. How would you find them in your dictionary?
b. What do these idioms equal to/mean ?
c. What syntactic/semantic restrictions are applied
to them?

5. Find 3 idiomatic expressions in bahasa Indonesia.

And analyze their syntactic/semantic restriction?

references

Palmer, F.R., 1981, Chapter 4: Lexical Semantics: Fields

and Collocation in Semantics, Cambridge University Press:
pp. 67 82.

http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/paradigmatic_and_sy
ntagmatic.aspx

http://www2.winchester.ac.uk/edstudies/courses/level%
20one%20sem%20one/sssynpar.htm
http://www.slideshare.net/hoshangfarooq/paradigmaticvs-syntagmatic-relations-2

Espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:205374/chaper 1_6pdf.
The study of collocations

Paradigmatic vs Syntagmatic: Fredinand de Saussure

(1916);
www.fb10.uni-bremen.de/anglistik/ws08/close-materials/p
aradigmatic-syntagmatic.pdf