MATERIAL AND

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
WEEK 3
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
AND TESTS

Stress
Stress is a measure of the intensity of the internal

forces acting within a deformable body.

Mathematically, it is a measure of the average
force per unit area of a surface within a the body
on which internal forces act
The SI unit for stress is Pascal (symbol Pa), which is
equivalent to one Newton (force) per square meter
(unit area).
Three types of stresses -> Tensile; Compressive;
Shear

Mechanism of Stress (Tensile)

Strain
Strain is deformation of a physical body under the action of

applied forces
It is the geometrical measure of deformation representing
the relative displacement between particles in the material
body
Strain is a dimensionless quantity
Strain accounts for elongation, shortening, or volume
changes, or angular distortion
Normal stress causes normal strain (tensile or compressive)
Shear strain is defined as the change in angle between two
originally orthogonal material lines

Types of Strains

tensile load
produces
an elongation and
positive linear
strain.

compressive load
produces contraction
and a negative linear
strain.

torsional
deformation

TENSILE TEST AND STRESSSTRAIN RELATIONSHIP

Tensile Test
Used for determining UTS, yield

strength, %age elongation, and

Youngs Modulus of Elasticity
The ends of a test piece are fixed
into grips. The specimen is
elongated by the moving
crosshead; load cell and
extensometer measure,
respectively, the magnitude of
the applied load and the
elongation

Stress-Strain Relationship

Important Terms (Stress-Strain Rel.)

Elastic Limit -> Maximum

amount of stress up to which

the deformation is absolutely
temporary
Proportionality Limit ->
Maximum stress up to which
the relationship between
stress & strain is linear.
Hookes Law -> Within elastic
limit, the strain produced in a
body is directly proportional
to the stress applied.
=E

Important Terms (Stress-Strain Rel.)

Youngs Modulus of elasticity

-> the ratio of the uniaxial

stress over the uniaxial strain
in the range of stress in which
Hooke's Law holds
Elasticity -> the tendency of a
body to return to its original
shape after it has been
stretched or compressed
Yield Point -> the stress at
which a material begins to
deform plastically

Important Terms (Stress-Strain Rel.)

Plasticity -> the deformation

of a material undergoing nonreversible changes of shape in

response to applied forces
Ultimate Strength -> It is the
maxima of the stress-strain
curve. It is the point at which
necking will start.
Necking -> A mode of tensile
deformation where relatively
large amounts of strain
localize disproportionately in
a small region of the material

Important Terms (Stress-Strain Rel.)

Fracture Point -> The stress

calculated immediately before

the fracture.
Ductility -> The amount of
strain a material can endure
before failure.
Ductility is measured by
percentage elongation or area
reduction

Important Terms (Stress-Strain Rel.)

A knowledge of ductility is

important for two reasons:

1. It indicates to a designer the
degree to which a structure
will deform plastically before
fracture.
2. It specifies the degree of
allowable deformation during
fabrication

Engineering stress strain behavior for Iron

at three temperatures

Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of a

material to absorb energy when it is

deformed elastically and then, upon
unloading, to have this energy
recovered
Modulus of Resilience (Ur) is the
strain energy per unit volume required
to stress a material from an unloaded
state up to the point of yielding.

Resilience
Assuming a linear elastic region

For SI units, this is joules per cubic meter (J/m3,

equivalent to Pa)

Thus, resilient materials are those having high yield

strengths and low moduli of elasticity; such alloys

would be used in spring applications

Shear and Torsional Tests

Shear Stress:
The shear strain is defined as the tangent of the
strain angle
Torsion is a variation of pure shear, wherein a
structural member is twisted in the manner of the
figure
Torsional stress -> The shear stress on a transverse
cross section resulting from a twisting action
Torsional forces produce a rotational motion about
the longitudinal axis of one end of the member
relative to the other end

ANELASTICITY
In most engineering materials, there also exists a

time-dependent elastic strain component.

This time-dependent elastic behavior is known as
anelasticity
For metals the anelastic component is normally
small and is often neglected
For some polymeric materials its magnitude is
significant; in this case it is termed viscoelastic
behavior

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.1

A piece of copper originally 305mm (12 in.) long is

pulled in tension with a stress of 276MPa

(40,000psi). If the deformation is entirely elastic,
what will be the resultant elongation?

Magnitude of E for copper from Table 6.1 is 110GPa

Poissons Ratio
Poissons ratio is defined as

the ratio of the lateral and axial

strains

Theoretically, Poissons ratio for

isotropic materials should be

. furthermore, generally the
maximum value for is 1/2 and
the minimum is 0.
0 < < 1/2

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.2

A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a

cylindrical brass rod that has a diameter of 10mm.

Determine the magnitude of the load required to produce a
0.0025mm change in diameter if the deformation is
entirely elastic.
For the strain in the x direction:

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.2

True Stress and Strain

The decline in the stress necessary to

continue deformation past the point

M, indicates that the metal is
becoming weaker.
Material is increasing in strength.
True stress T is defined as the load
F divided by the instantaneous crosssectional area Ai over which
deformation is occurring
True strain T is defined as:

True Stress and Strain

If no volume change occurs during deformation

that is, if

A i li = A 0 l0

Then true and engineering stress and strain are

related according to

The equations are valid only to the onset of necking;

beyond this point true stress and strain should be

computed from actual load, cross-sectional area, and
gauge length measurements

Assignment
(a) Completely describe Compression Test. (b)

How is it different from Tensile test? (c) What are

the effects of Friction and Workpieces height-todiameter ratio on the test? (d) Derive relationship
between true stress/strain and engineering
stress/strain for compression test (also show by
stress-strain curve)
Submission due date 18-March-2013

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.4

A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original diameter

of 12.8mm is tensile tested to fracture and found to have

an engineering fracture strength f of 460MPa. If its
cross-sectional diameter at fracture is 10.7mm, determine:
(a) The ductility in terms of percent reduction in area
(b) The true stress at fracture
Ductility is computed as

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.4

True stress is defined by Equation
where the area is taken as the fracture area Af
However, the load at fracture must first be computed
from the fracture strength as

And the true stress is calculated as

Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation

Upon release of the load during the

course of a stressstrain test, some

fraction of the total deformation is
recovered as elastic strain
During the unloading cycle, the curve
traces a near straight-line path from
the point of unloading (point D), and
its slope is virtually parallel to the
initial elastic portion of the curve
The magnitude of this elastic strain,
which is regained during unloading,
corresponds to the strain recovery

Hardness
Hardness is the property of material by virtue of

which it resists against surface indentation and

scratches.
Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by
strong intermolecular bonds
Hardness is dependent upon strength and ductility
Common examples of hard matter are diamond,
ceramics, concrete, certain metals, and superhard
materials (PcBN, PcD, etc)

Hardness Tests (BRINELL HARDNESS

TEST)
Used for testing metals and nonmetals of low to

medium hardness
The Brinell scale characterizes the indentation
hardness of materials through the scale of
penetration of an indenter, loaded on a material testpiece
A hardened steel (or cemented carbide) ball of
10mm diameter is pressed into the surface of a
specimen using load of 500, 1500, or 3000 kg.

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

where:
P = applied force (kgf)
D = diameter of indenter (mm)
d = diameter of indentation
(mm)
The resulting BHN has

units of kg/mm2, but the

units are usually omitted in
expressing the numbers

Rockwell Hardness Test

Rockwell test determines the hardness by measuring

the depth of penetration of an indenter under a large

load compared to the penetration made by a preload
A cone shaped indenter or small diameter ball (D =
1.6 or 3.2mm) is pressed into a specimen using a
minor load of 10kg
Then, a major load of 150kg is applied
The additional penetration distance d is converted to
a Rockwell hardness reading by the testing machine.

Rockwell Hardness Test

Vickers Hardness Test

Uses a pyramid shaped indenter made of diamond.
It is based on the principle that impressions made by

this indenter are geometrically similar regardless of

load.
The basic principle, as with all common measures of
hardness, is to observe the questioned material's ability
to resist plastic deformation from a standard source.
Accordingly, loads of various sizes are applied,
depending on the hardness of the material to be
measured

Vickers Hardness Test

Where:
F = applied load (kg)
D = Diagonal of the impression
made the indenter (mm)
The hardness number is
determined by the load over the
surface area of the indentation
and not the area normal to the
force

Knoop Hardness Test

It is a microhardness test - a test for mechanical hardness

used particularly for very brittle materials or thin sheets

A pyramidal diamond point is pressed into the polished
surface of the test material with a known force, for a
specified dwell time, and the resulting indentation is
measured using a microscope
Length-to-width ratio of the pyramid is 7:1

Knoop Hardness Test (contd)

The indenter shape facilitates reading the

impressions at lighter loads

HK = Knoop hardness value; F = load (kg); D = long

diagonal of the impression (mm)

Hardness of Metals and Ceramics

Hardness of Polymers

TOUGHNESS
It is a property of material by virtue of which it

resists against impact loads.

Toughness is the resistance to fracture of a material
when stressed
Mathematically, it is defined as the amount of energy
per volume that a material can absorb before
rupturing
Toughness can be determined by measuring the area
(i.e., by taking the integral) underneath the stressstrain curve

Toughness (contd)
Toughness =

Where
is strain
f is the strain upon failure
is stress

The Area covered under stress

strain curve is called
toughness

Toughness (contd)
Toughness is measured in units of joules per cubic

meter (J/m3) in the SI system

Toughness and Strength -> A material may be
strong and tough if it ruptures under high forces,
exhibiting high strains
Brittle materials may be strong but with limited
strain values, so that they are not tough
Generally, strength indicates how much force the
material can support, while toughness indicates how
much energy a material can absorb before rupture

Effect of Temperature on Properties

Generally speaking, materials are lower in strength

and higher in ductility, at elevated temperatures

Hot Hardness
A property used to characterize strength and

hardness at elevated temperatures is Hot Hardness

It is the ability of a material to retain its hardness at
elevated temperatures

Numerical Problems
Problems 6.3 to 6.9;
6.14 to 6.23;
6.25 to 6.33;
6.46 to 6.48