Results Analysis and

Discussion Workshop
By
Charles Bong Hin Joo

Results

Results! Why, man, I have gotten a lot of

results. I know several thousand things that
wont work.
Thomas A. Edison

Content of the Results

Do not start the Results section by describing methods

that you inadvertently omitted from the Materials and
Methods section.
Two key ingredients of the Results section:
a)

Give some kind of overall description of the

experiments, providing the big picture, without
repeating the experimental details previously provided in
Materials and Methods.

b) Present the data in the past tense.

Example - Results
Give overall
description of
experiments

Bong, C.H.J. (2013). Self-cleansing urban drain using sediment

flushing gate based on incipient motion. Ph.D Thesis, Universiti Sains
Malaysia.

Content of the Results

Present representative data rather than endlessly
repetitive data (you can attach the rest of the data in
Appendix).
The compulsion to include everything, leaving nothing out,
does not prove that one has unlimited information; it
proves that one lacks discrimination Aaronson (1977)
The fool collects facts; the wise man selects them
Wesley Powell (1888)

How to Handle Numbers

If one or only a few determinations are to be presented,

they should be treated descriptively in the text.
Repetitive determinations should be given in tables and
graphs.
Any determinations, repetitive or otherwise should be
meaningful.

How to Handle Numbers

If statistics are used to describe the results, they should

be meaningful statistics.

% of the mice used in this experiment were cured by the

test drug; % of the test population were unaffected by the
drug and remained in a moribund condition; the third
mouse got away.

Strive for Clarity

The results should be short and sweet, without verbiage.
If you are out to describe the truth, leave elegance to the
tailor
Einstein
Although the Results section is the most important part,
it is often the shortest, particularly if it is preceded by a
well-written Materials and Methods section and followed
by a well-written Discussion.
The Results need to be clearly and simply stated
because it is the Results that constitute the new
knowledge that you are contributing to the world.

Avoid Redundancy
The most common fault is the repetition in words of
what is already apparent to the reader from examination
of the figures and tables.
Even worse is the actual presentation, in the text, of all
or many of the data shown in the tables or figures.
Do not be verbose in citing figures and tables. Do not
say It is clearly shown in Table 1 that nocillin inhibited
the growth of N. gonorrhoeae. Say Nocillin inhibited
the growth of N. gonorrhoeae (Table 1).

Tables

A tabular presentation of data is often the

heart or, better, the brain, of a scientific
paper.
Peter Morgan

When to Use Tables

As a rule, do not construct a table unless repetitive data

must be presented.
If you make (or need to present)
determinations, give the data in text.

only

few

Example Repetitive Data

Bong, C.H.J., Lau, T.L. & Ab. Ghani, A. (2013). Hydraulics characteristics of tipping
sediment flushing gate. Water Science & Technology, 68(11), 2397-2406.

When to Use Tables

Table 1 is faulty because two of the columns give
standard conditions, not variables and not data.
The data presented in Table 1 can be presented in the
text itself, i.e. Aeration of the growth medium was
essential for the growth of Streptomyces coelicolor. At
room temperature (24C), no growth was evident in
stationary (unaerated) cultures, whereas substantial
growth (OD, 78 Klett units) occurred in aerated
cultures.

When to Use Tables

In Table 2, the independent variable (temperature) looks
reasonable, but the dependent variable column (growth)
has a suspicious number of zeros.
Table 2 is useless because all it tells us is that The oak
seedlings grew at temperatures between 20 and 30C;
no measureable growth occurred at temperatures below
20C or above 40C.

When to Use Tables

Table 3 is not informative. All the table tells us is that
S. griseus, S. coelicolor, S. everycolor, and S.
rainbownesky grew under aerobic conditions, whereas S.
nocolor and S. greenicus required anaerobic conditions.
Whenever a table of columns within a table, can be
readily put into words, do it.

When to Use Tables

Give only significant numbers. Nonsignificant numbers

may mislead the reader by creating a false sense of
precision; they also make comparison of the data more
difficult.
In Table 4, the results were not statistically significant
(P=0.21).
Even if the data in Table 4 is worth publishing, one
sentence in the Results would have done the job: The
difference between the failure rates 14% (5 of 35) for
nocillin and 26% (9 of 34) for potassium penicillin V was
not significant (P = 0.21).

When to Use Tables

Another very common useless table is word list. Table 5
is an example. This information could easily be
presented in the text.
Thus the rule: Present the data in the text, or in a table,
or in a figure.

How to Arrange Tabular Material

Data should be organized so that the like elements read
down, not across.
Compare Table 6 and 7. They are equivalent, except that
Table 6 reads across, whereas Table 7 reads down.
Table 7 is the preferred format because it allows the
reader to grasp the information more easily.
Words in a column are lined up on the left. Numbers are
lined up on the right as illustrated in Table 7.

How to Arrange Tabular Material

How to Arrange Tabular Material

Table 8 is an example of a well-constructed table.
It reads down, not across.
It has clear heading to make the meaning of the data
understandable without reference to the text.
It has horizontal rules (lines) but no vertical rules.

Titles, Footnotes and Abbreviations

The title of a table should be concise and not divided

into two or more clauses or sentences.
Give careful thought to the footnotes of your table.
If abbrevations must be defines, you can give all or most
of the definitions in the first table. Then the later tables
can carry the simple footnote: Abbreviations as in Table
1.

Graphs

A good illustration can help the scientist to be heard when

speaking, to be read when writing. It can help in the
sharing of information with other scientists. It can help to
convince granting agencies to fund the research. It can help
in the teaching of students. It can help to inform the public
of the value of the work.
Mary Helen Briscoe

When to Illustrate
Do not use graph if it could be describe in words, i.e.
only one value is really significant, either a maximum or
minimum; the rest is window dressing.
If the choice is graph versus table, your choice might
relate to whether you want to impart to readers exact
numerical values or simply a picture of the trend or
shape of data.
Rarely, there might be a reason to present the same
data in both a table and a graph, the first presenting the
exact values and the second showing a trend not
otherwise apparent.

When to Illustrate
Figure 1 is an example of unneeded bar graph. This
figure could be replaced by one sentence in the text:
Among the test group of 56 patients who were
hospitalized for an average of 14 days, 6 acquired
infections.

When to Use Graphs

If the data show pronounced

interesting pictures, use graph.

trends,

making

an

If the number just sit there, with no exciting trend in

evidence, a table should be satisfactory.

When to Use Graphs

Table 9 and Figure 2 both record exactly the same data.
Either format is acceptable, however Figure 2 clearly
seems superior where the synergistic action of the twodrug combination is immediately apparent.

How to Prepare Graphs

Figure 3 is a nice graph. The lettering was large enough
to withstand reduction in printing. It is boxed, making it
easier to estimate the values on the right-hand side of
the graph.
Do not extend the ordinate or the abscissa beyond what
the graph demand. Example, if your data points range
between 0 and 78, your topmost index number should
be 80 so as no empty spaces in the graph.

How to Prepare Graphs

Symbols and Legends

If there is a space in the graph, use it to present the key

to the symbols.
Use only symbols that are considered standard and that
are widely available.
The most standard symbols are open and closed circles,
triangles and squares.

Photographs

Life is not about significant details,

illuminated in a flash, fixed forever.
Photographs are.
Susan Sontag

Cropping
Seldom you need the whole photograph, right out to all
four edges.
Crop the photograph to include only the important part.

Crop

Necessary Keys and Guides

If cannot crop down to the features of special interest,
consider superimposing arrows or letters on the
photographs.

Litter
Bong, C.H.J., Lau, T.L. & Ab. Ghani, A.
(2014). Sediment size and deposition
characteristics in Malaysian urban
concrete drains a case study of
Kuching city. Urban Water Journal,
11(1), 74-89.

Ab. Ghani, A., Bong, C.H.J. & Lau, T.L. (2013).

Sediment flushing using tipping flush gate in open
storm concrete drain a case study in Nibong Tebal,
Penang, Malaysia. 35th IAHR World Congress
(IAHR2013), 8-13 September 2013, Chendu, China.

Color
If you are considering using color, make sure that the
photographs is still reproducible in Black and White.
Color should be able to improve your report/paper rather
than merely decorative and distracting.

Summary 12 steps to Writing

Effective Results Section
1. Determine which results to present by deciding which are
relevant to the question(s) presented in the Introduction
irrespective of whether or not
the results support the
hypothesis(es).
2. Organize data in the Results section in either chronological
order according to the Methods or in order of most to least
important.
3. Determine whether the data are best presented in the form of
text, figures, graphs or tables.
4. Summarize your findings and point the reader to the relevant
data in the text, figures and/or tables. The text should
complement the figures or tables, not repeat the same
information.

Summary 12 steps to Writing

Effective Results Section
5. Describe the results and data of the controls and include
observations not presented in a formal figure or table, if
appropriate.
6. Provide a clear description of the magnitude of a response
or difference. If appropriate, use percentage of change
rather than exact data.
7. Make sure that the data are accurate and consistent
throughout the manuscript.
8. Summarize the statistical analysis and report actual P
values for all primary analyses.

Summary 12 steps to Writing

Effective Results Section
9. Use the past tense when referring to your results.
10.Number figures and tables consecutively in the same
sequence they are first mentioned in the text.
11.Provide heading for each figure and table. Each figure
and table must be sufficiently complete that it could
stand on its own, separate from the text.
12.Write with accuracy, brevity and clarity.

Discussion

It is the fault of our rhetoric that we cannot

strongly state one fact without seeming to
belie some other.
Ralph Waldo Emerson

Discussion and Verbiage

The Discussion is usually the hardest section to write.
Even though the data might be both valid and
interesting, the true meaning of the data may be
completely obscured by the interpretation presented in
the Discussion.

Components of the Discussion

Try to present the principles, relationships, and
generalizations shown by the Results. In a good
discussion, you discuss you do not recapitulate the
Results.
Point out any exceptions or any lack of correlation and
define unsettled points. Never take the high-risk
alternative of trying to cover up or fudge data that do
not quite fit.
Show how your results and interpretations agree (or
contrast) with previously published work.

Example - Discussion

Bong, C.H.J., Lau, T.L. & Ab. Ghani, A. (2013). Verification of equations for
incipient motion studies for a rigid rectangular channel. Water Science &
Technology, 67(2), 395-403.

Point out exceptions

Show result
agree or
contradict with
previously
published work.

Try to present the

principles shown by
the Results.

Components of the Discussion

Dont be shy; discuss the theoretical implications of your
work, as well as any possible practical applications.
State your conclusions as clearly as possible.
Summarize your evidence for each conclusion.
The Introduction and the Discussion should function as a
pair. The Introduction should have posed one or more
questions, while the Discussion should indicate what the
findings say about the answer.

Use and Misuse of English in

Discussion

Long words name little things. All big things have little
names, such as life an death, peace and war, or dawn, day,
night, love, home. Learn to use little words in a big way It
is hard to do. But they say what they mean. When you
dont know what you mean, use big words: They often fool
little people.
SSC BOOKNEWS, July 1981

Metaphorically Speaking

Avoid similes and metaphors.

If you use them, use them carefully.
Watch out for hackneyed expressions, e.g. timid as a
mouse. Interesting and picturesque writing results from
the use of fresh similes and metaphors; dull writing
results from the use of stale ones.

Misuse of Words
Watch for self-canceling or redundant words. E.g. young
juveniles; authentic replicas; 7 a.m. in the morning;
viable alternative.
Amount Use this word to refer to a mass or aggregate.
Use number when individual entities are involved. An
amount of cash is alright. An amount of coins is wrong.
Quite Next time you notice this word in one of your
manuscripts, delete it and read the sentence again. You
will notice that quite is quite unnecessary.
While When a time relationship exists, while is correct;
otherwise, whereas would be a better choice.
It This common, useful pronoun and cause problem if an
antecedent is not clear.

Tense
When you state previously published findings, you should use
present tense; you are referring to established knowledge.
Your own present work must be referred to in the past tense.
Your work is not presumed to be established knowledge until
after it has been published.
Most of the Abstract should be in the past tense, because you
are referring to your own results. Likewise, the Material and
Methods and the Results sections should be in the past tense,
as you describe what you did and what you found. On the
other hand, Introduction and Discussion should be in the
present tense, because these sections often emphasize
previously established knowledge.

Active versus Passive Voice

The active voice is usually more precise and less wordy

than is the passive voice.
Passive voice functions well in the Methods section.
Elsewhere, it rarely should be used.
Example, avoid the passive voice by saying The authors
found instead of it was found.

Numbers
One-digit numbers should be spelled out; numbers of
two or more digits should be expressed as numerals.
Example, three experiments or 13 experiments. 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ten, eleven
The exception: with standard units of measure, always
use numerals. Example, 3 ml or 13 ml.
Another exception: Should not start a sentence with
numerals.
In a sentence containing a series of numbers, at least
one of which is of more than one digit, all of the
numbers should be expressed as numerals. Example, I
gave water to 3 scientists, milk to 6 scientists, and beer
to 11 scientists.

Summary 14 Steps to Writing

Effective Discussion Section
1. Organize the Discussion from the specific to the general: your
findings to the literature, to theory, to practice.
2. Use the same key terms, the same verb tense (present
tense), and the same point of view that you used when posing
the questions in the Introduction.
3. Begin by re-stating the hypothesis you were testing and
answering the questions posed in the Introduction.
4. Support the answers with the results. Explain how your results
relate to expectations and to the literature, clearly stating why
they are acceptable and how they are consistent or fit in the
previously published knowledge on the topic.
5. Address all the results relating to the questions.

Summary 14 Steps to Writing

Effective Discussion Section
6. Describe the patterns, principles, and relationships
shown by each major finding/result and put them in
perspective. First state the answer, then the relevant
results, then cite the work of others. If necessary, point
the reader to a figure or table to enhance the story.
7. Defend your answers, if necessary, by explaining both
why your answer is satisfactory and why others are not.
8. Discuss and evaluate conflicting explanations of the
results.
9. Discuss any unexpected findings. When discussing an
unexpected finding, begin the paragraph with the finding
and then describe it.

Summary 14 Steps to Writing

Effective Discussion Section
10.Identify potential limitations and weaknesses and comment on
the relative importance of these to your interpretation of the
results and how they may affect the validity of the findings.
11.Summarize concisely the principal implications of the findings.
12.Provide recommendations (no more than two) for future
research. Do not offer suggestions which could have been easily
addressed within the study, as this shows there has been
inadequate examination and interpretation of the data.
13.Explain how the results and conclusions of this study are
important and how they influence our knowledge or
understanding of the problem being examined.
14.In your writing of the Discussion, discuss everything, but be
concise, brief, and specific.

All the Best in Your Report Writing..