NEUROANATOMY OF

MENTAL AND
NEUROBEHAVIOR
DISORDERS
Erial Bahar
2012

Learning Objectives
1. Describe the structures involved in psychiatric and
neurobehavioral disorders
2. Describe and diagram the basic morphology of the
structures comprising the limbic system
3. Describe and diagram the input-output
relationships of limbic nuclei
4. Characterize the functions of limbic brain
structures and their underlying mechanisms (where
known)
5. Develop an understanding of the structural and
functional bases for clinical and behavioral
disorders associated with dysfunctions of the limbic
system

OVERVIEW
1. Anatomy of neurobehavior system
1. Overview of the human nervous system
2. Anatomy of the brain
1.
2.

Cortex cerebri
Anatomy of the Limbic system

2. Physiology of neurobehavior system

1. Overview of the motor system
1.
2.

Pyramidal system
Extrapyramidal system

2. Overview of the sensory system

3. Higher functions of the brain
1.
2.
3.

Intellectual functions of the brain

Learning
Memory

4. Emotion

Structures Involved in
Psychiatric and
Neurobehavioral
Disorders
Hippocampal formation

1.
2. Amygdala
3. Orbitofrontal cortex
4. Cingulate gyrus
5. Hypothalamus
6. Mammilary bodies
7. Anterior thalamic nucleus
8. Medial dorsal thalamis nucleus
9. Ventral striatum
10. Frontal lobe
11. Rhinencephalon
12. Mesencephalon
1.
2.
3.

Substantia Nigra
Ventral tegmental area (VTA)
Formatio reticularis

Limbic system

OVERVIEW OF THE
FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY
OF THE BRAIN

Areas of the human cerebral cortex defined by Brodmann in his 1909 publication

Spatial relationships between basal ganglia, thalamus, and

internal capsule as viewed from the left side.

OVERVIEW OF THE
LIMBIC SYSTEM

LIMBIC SYSTEM
Is a system that concerns with specific motivated or goaloriented behaviors, directly aimed at the maintenance of
homeostasis and at the survival of the individual and of the
species (Nieuwenhuys, 1996)
The limbic system receives input from many parts of the cortex
and contains multimodal association areas where various
aspects of sensory experience come together to form a single
experience.
The hippocampus, within the limbic system, plays crucial roles
in spatial problem solving and in memory.
Functions:
Maintenance of homeostasis
Motivated and goal-oriented behaviors
Survival of the individual
Survival of the species
Learning and memory

McLeans schema of the evolutionary development of a three-layered

triune brain. Note the location of the limbic system in the middle tier
Brain Circuitry and Signaling in Psychiatry

Hippocampal
formation
(archicortex,
three layers)

Hippocampus
Dentate gyrus

Phylogenetically
oldest

Amygdala

Limbic system
Limbic lobe,
(mesocortex, three
to five layers)

Parahippocampal gyrus
Cingulate gyrus
Subcallosal gyrus

Neocortex,
(five to six layers)

Primary motor cortex

Primary sensory cortex
Association cortex

Newest

Diagram of the structure of the cerebral cortex. A: Golgi neuronal stain. B: Nissl
cellular stain. C: Weigart myelin stain. D: Neuronal connections. Roman and Arabic
numerals indicate the layers of the isocortex (neocortex); 4, external line of
Baillarger (line of Gennari in the occipital lobe); 5b, internal line of Baillarger.

Stuctures of the Limbic

System
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Hypothalamus
Amygdala
Septal area
Hippocampal formation
Cingulate gyrus

Some Limbic System Connections

Connections

Structure
Dentate
gyrus

From entorhinal cortex (via perforant pathway and

alvear pathway)
To hippocampus (via mossy fibers)

Hippocamp From dentate gyrus (via mossy fibers), septum (via

us
fornix), limbic lobe (via cingulum)
To mamillary bodies, anterior thalamus, septal
area, and tuber cinereum (via fornix); subcallosal
area (via longitudinal striae)
Septal area From olfactory bulb, amygdala, fornix
To medial forebrain bundle, hypothalamus,
habenula
Amygdala

From primitive temporal cortex and sensory

association cortex, opposite amygdala (via anterior
commissure)
To hypothalamus (direct amygdalofugal pathway),
septal area, and hypothalamus (via stria terminalis)

Clinical Neuroanatomy, Waxman,25th ed

Medial aspect of the right hemispherium showing the corpus callosum.

CCg = Genu; CCb = Body; CCs = Splenium

Schematic drawing of the major anatomical structures of the limbic system.

Note: The cingulated and parahippocampal gyri form the limbic lobe, a rim
of tissue located along the junction of the diencephalons and the cerebral
hemispheres. n, nucleus.

Upper cortex and white matter tracts of the brain removed, revealing
the close relationship of the limbic system (hippocampus and fornix)
and striatum in the center of the brain.

Schema depicting dorsal view of

connections of the amygdala:
14 = olfactory structures,
5 = anterior commissure,
6 = olfactory tubercle,
7 = limen insulae,
8 = diagonal band of Broca,
9 = inferior thalamic peduncle,
10 = medial telencephalic
fasciculus,
11 = ventral amygdalofugal pathway,
1217 = amygdaloid nuclei,
18 = lateral hypothalamic area,
1920 = nucleus and stria
medullaris,
21 = stria terminalis,
22 = habenular commissure,
23 = septal nuclei.

Diagram of the principal connections of the limbic system. Olfactory and

amygdaloid connections.
Clinical Neuroanatomy, Waxman,25 ed.
th

Diagram of the principal connections of the limbic system. Hippocampal

system and great limbic lobe.
Clinical Neuroanatomy, Waxman,25th ed

Schematic llustration of the location of the limbic system between

the diencephalon and the neocortex
Clinical Neuroanatomy, Waxman,25th ed

This limbic lobe consists of a ring of cortex outside the corpus

callosum, largely made up of the subcallosal and cingulate gyri
as well as the parahippocampal gyrus.
Clinical Neuroanatomy, Waxman,25th ed

Schematic illustration (left oblique view) of the position of

hippocampal formation in the left hemisphere
Clinical Neuroanatomy, Waxman,25th ed

Le Grande Lobe Limbique as adapted from Brocas original

1878 drawing of an otters brain. Brocas callosal gyrus is now
termed the cingulate gyrus.
Ref: Clinical Neuroanatomy.pdf

Papez
HIPPOCAMPAL
circuitFIBERS

project to the MAMMILLARY BODIES,

which, in turn, project through the MAMMILLOTHALAMIC TRACT
to the ANTERIOR NUCLEUS. The anterior thalamic nucleus then
projects to the CINGULATE GYRUS, and the axons of the

Ref: Clinical Neuroanatomy.pdf

Ref: Clinical Neuroanatomy.pdf

Schematic showing some of the major limbic structures

and pathways.

Information flow to and

from the limbic system
The limbic system receives
inputs from sensory systems,
including the cerebral cortex,
and monoamine neuronal
groups of the brainstem
reticular formation.
Primary outputs of the limbic
system are directed to the
hypothalamus. This
arrangement allows the limbic
system to alter the activity of
the hypothalamus in response
to sensory input.
Because the hypothalamus
provides the integrating
mechanism for different forms
of emotional behaviors as well
as for other visceral and
autonomic responses, the
limbic system serves as a key
modulating region of these
processes by virtue of its inputs
into the hypothalamus.

RHINENCEPHALON AND
OLFACTORY SYSTEM

Olfactory System
Olfaction (the sense of smell)
is one of the oldest senses
from a phylogenetic point of
view.
The olfactory system
constitutes an important
input to the limbic system.
The olfactory receptors are
specialized neurons located
in the olfactory mucous
membrane, a portion of the
nasal mucosa.
The axons of the olfactory
receptors travel to the
olfactory bulb.

The olfactory nerve (lateral view)

Clinical Neuroanatomy, Waxman,25th ed

Olfactory
System,cont.

Within the olfactory bulb,

the olfactory receptor
axons terminate in
specialized synaptic
arrangements (termed
glomeruli) on the
dendrites of mitral cells.
Olfactory neurons
expressing a specific
odorant receptor (and
thus responsive to a
specific odorant stimulus)
project precisely to a
small number of glomeruli
within the olfactory bulb.

Olfactory
System,cont
The mitral cells of the olfactory bulb send

their axons posteriorly via the olfactory

tracts (also termed the medial and lateral
olfactory stria) to the olfactory projection
area in the cortex.
The lateral olfactory stria is the projection
bundle of fibers that passes laterally along the
floor of the lateral fissure and enters the
olfactory projection area near the uncus in
the temporal lobe (the pyriform, entorhinal
cortex and parts of the amygdala.) The
pyriform cortex projects, in turn, via the
thalamus to the frontal lobe, where conscious
discrimination of odors presumably occurs.
The small medial olfactory stria passes
medially and up toward the subcallosal gyrus
(the anterior olfactory nucleus) which
sends its axons back to the olfactory bulbs on
both sides, presumably as part of a feedback
circuit that modulates the sensitivity of
olfactory sensation.
Other olfactory fibers reach the anterior
perforated substance to serve olfactory
reflex reactions.

Olfactory pathway
MITRAL CELL
TUFTED CELL

OLFACTORY
RECEPTOR

PRIMARY OLFACTORY CORTEX

Prepyriform
pyriform cortex

Discrimination
POSTEROLATERAL
ORBITOFRONTAL CORTEX

uncinate fasciculus

Stria terminalis

SECONDARY OLFACTORY CORTEX

Entorhinal cortex (EC)

Conscious perception
DORSOMEDIAL NUCLEUS(DMmc)
Emotion
AMYGDALA
Behavior
ANS
Endocrine response
HYPOTHALAMUS

TERTIARY OLFACTORY CORTEX

Hippocampus (Hipp)

Olfactory
System,Dysfunction
1. Anosmia (loss of smell):
1. Nasal infection
2. Head trauma that damages the
cribrous plate

2. Olfactory (or uncinate) hallucination:

1. Might be a sign of temporal lobe tumor

HIPPOCAMPAL
FORMATION

Structures of the Hippocampal

Formation

1. Hippocampus proper
(also called Ammon's horn) :

extends the length of the floor of the

inferior horn of the lateral ventricle

continuous with the fornix below the

splenium of the corpus callosum.

2. Dentate gyrus :

is a thin, scalloped strip of cortex that lies

on the upper surface of the
parahippocampal gyrus.
serves as an input station for the
hippocampal formation.
receives inputs from many cortical
regions that are relayed to it via the
entorhinal cortex.
The cells of the dentate gyrus project to
the hippocampus.

3. Subiculum

Schematic illustration of the major connections to, within, and from the
hippocampal formation. Dentate granule cells (DG) project to pyramidal neurons
in the hippocampus. CA1 through CA4 are sectors of the hippocampus
Clinical Neuroanatomy, Waxman,25th ed

Schematic illustration of pathways between the hippocampal formation and

the diencephalon. Notice the presence of a loop (Papez circuit), including the
parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, mamillary bodies, anterior thalamus,
and cingulate gyrus. Notice also that the neocortex feeds into this loop
Clinical Neuroanatomy, Waxman,25th ed

Hippocampal
formation in relation
to other limbic
structures.
A, amygdala;
AC, anterior
commissure; AN,
anterior nucleus of
the thalamus;
B-F, basofrontal
region;
CC, corpus callosum
(b, body; g, genu; s,
splenium);
CG, cingulate gyrus;
E-RC, entorhinal
cortex;
F, fornix;
Fm, fimbria;
HF, hippocampal
formation;
IG, indusium
griseum;

Fibers that form the FORNIX

Diagram illustrates the histological appearance of the cell

layers within the hippocampus and loci of the hippocampal
fields, dentate gyrus, and subicular cortex. CA1-CA4 denote
the four sectors of the hippocampus

Semischematic diagram illustrates: (1) inputs from the entorhinal

region, which include the perforant and alvear pathways; (2)
internal circuitry, which includes the connections of the mossy
fibers and Schaffer collaterals; and (3) efferent projections of the
hippocampal formation through the fimbria-fornix system of

Major projection targets of the hippocampal formation. The primary output

is through the fornix to diencephalon (i.e., medial hypothalamus,
mammillary bodies, and anterior thalamic nucleus) via the postcommissural
fornix and to the septal area via the precommissural fornix. Other
connections shown include efferent fibers that synapse in entorhinal

OFC, orbitofrontal cortex

FAC, Frontal association
cortex
PMC, premotor cortex
AAC,auditory association
cortex
SAC,somatosensory
association cortex
SPL , superior parietal lobule
IPL, inferior parietal lobule
TAC, temporal association
cortex,
VAC, visual association
cortex

BFC, basal frontal cortex

OFC, orbitofrontal cortex
FAC, Frontal association
cortex
PMC, premotor cortex
CG, cingulate gyrus
CC, corpus callosum
PAC, parietal association
cortex
SAC,somatosensory
association cortex
TAC, temporal association
cortex,
VAC, visual association
cortex
A, amygdala
H, hippocampus
E, entorhinal cortex

HIPPOCAMPAL
AFFERENTS

LgF, longitudinal
fissure
PCS, precentral
sulcus
CS, central sulcus
LF, lateral fissure
STS, superior
temporal sulcus
MTS, middle
HIPPOCAMPAL temporal sulcus
EFFERENTS ITS, inferior temporal
sulcus
CoS, collateral sulcus

HYPOTHALAMUS

A. The approximate boundaries

of the anterior, middle, and
posterior divisions of the
Hypothalamus
B. The medial and lateral zones
of the hypothalamus(shaded).
Hypothalamic cells adjacent to
the third ventricle is
paraventricular zone.

Abbreviations:
A, amygdala;
AC,
anterior commissure;
AcN,
accumbens nucleus;
CN,
caudate nucleus;
CP,
cerebral peduncles;
Fc,
columns of the fornix;
Fcrus, crus of fornix;
Inf,
infundibulum;
MB,
mammillary body;
OC,
optic chiasm;
ON,
optic nerve;
OT,
optic tract;
P, putamen;
Pit,
pituitary gland;
S, septal nuclei;
SN,
substantia nigra;
SubT,
subthalamus;

HYPOTHALAMICPITUITARY
CONNECTIONS.

The posterior portion of the

pituitary (neurohypophysis) is
innervated by hypothalamic
neurons that transport the
hypothalamic hormones (oxytocin
and vasopressin) down their axons
to be released into capillary beds
of the posterior pituitary from
where they enter the general
circulation. By contrast, the
capillary beds of the anterior
pituitary (adenohypophysis)
are supplied with hypothalamic
hormones (either releasing or
inhibitory factors) via a blood
portal system from capillary beds
in the hypothalamus itself. Once
released into the
adenohypophysis, these
hypothalamic hormones then
stimulate pituitary cells to
synthesize and secrete their own

SEPTAL AREA

Topographically organized projections from the

hippocampal formation to the septal area (left side) and
topographically arranged efferent projections from the
diagonal band of Broca to the hippocampal formation
(right side).

Diagram illustrates other projections from the septal

area to the medial hypothalamus, mammillary
bodies, medial thalamus, prefrontal cortex, and
anterior cingulate gyrus.

AMYGDALA

AMYGDAL
A amygdala
The

(amygdaloid nuclear
complex) is a gray matter
mass that lies in the medial
temporal pole between the
uncus and the
parahippocampal gyrus.
It is situated just anterior to
the tip of the anterior horn
of the lateral ventricle.
Its fiber connections include
:
1. the semicircular stria terminalis
to the septal area, preoptic areas
and anterior hypothalamus.
2. amygdalofugal pathway to the
middle portion of the
hypothalamus.

Nuclei of
Two distinct groups of neurons:
Amygdala
1. the large basolateral nuclear group.

receives higher-order sensory information from

association areas in the frontal, temporal, and insular
cortex.
Axons run back from the amygdala to the association
regions of the cortex.
also connected, via the stria terminalis and the
amygdalofugal pathway, to the ventral striatum and the
thalamus.

2. the smaller corticomedial nuclear group.

The corticomedial nuclear group of the amygdala,

located close to the olfactory cortex, is interconnected
with it as well as the olfactory bulb.
Connections also run, via the stria terminalis and
amygdalofugal pathway, to and from the brain stem and
hypothalamus.

the organization of the nuclei of the amygdala

The major efferent projections of the amygdala. One principal output

includes the stria terminalis, which projects to the bed nucleus of the
stria terminalis and to the rostro-caudal extent of the medial
hypothalamus. Fibers from the bed nucleus also supply similar regions
of the hypothalamus. Another important output to the hypothalamus
and midbrain PAG uses the ventral amygdalofugal pathway. Other fibers

Dysfunction of the Limbic

System
Stimulation alters somatic motor responses,
leading to bizarre eating and drinking habits,
changes in sexual and grooming behavior,
and defensive postures of attack and rage.
There can be changes in autonomic
responses, altering cardiovascular or
gastrointestinal function, and in personality,
with shifts from passive to aggressive
behavior.
Damage to some areas of the limbic system
may also profoundly affect memory.

Klver-Bucy
Syndrome

Occurs in patients with bilateral temporal lobe

lesions.
The major characteristics of this syndrome are
hyperorality (a tendency to explore objects by
placing them in the mouth together with the
indiscriminate eating or chewing of objects and all
kinds of food);
hypersexuality, sometimes described as a lack of
sexual inhibition;
psychic blindness, or visual agnosia, in which
objects are no longer recognized; presumably
results from damage to the amydala.
personality changes, usually with abnormal
passivity or docility.

Temporal Lobe
Epilepsy
The temporal lobe (especially the hippocampus and amygdala)

has a lower threshold for epileptic seizure activity than the other
cortical areas.
Seizures that originate in these regions, called psychomotor
(complex partial) seizures, differ from the jacksonian seizures
that originate in or near the motor cortex.
Temporal lobe epilepsy may include abnormal sensations,
especially bizarre olfactory sensations, sometimes called uncinate
fits; repeated involuntary movements such as chewing,
swallowing, and lip smacking; disorders of consciousness; memory
loss; hallucinations; and disorders of recall and recognition.
Etiology:
tumor (eg, astrocytoma or oligodendroglioma) may be responsible,
glial scar formation after trauma to the temporal poles may trigger seizures.

Although anticonvulsant drugs are often given to control the

seizures, they may be ineffective. In these cases, neurosurgical
removal of the seizure focus in the temporal lobe may provide
excellent seizure control.

PREFRONTAL CORTEX

PREFRONTAL CORTEX
Located in front of the motor cortex. This
is one of the anatomic structures that
distinguishes humans from other mammal.
Comprises 29% of the total cortex.
Dysfunction in the PFC is implicated as a
possible source of pathology in many
psychiatric disorders depression,
schizophrenia, anxiety, and attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as
well as anger and violence.

FRONTAL CORTEX
The frontal lobe can be divided into three sections.
The first, occupying the precentral gyrus, is the
PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX. Conscious movements are
mediated in the primary motor cortex.
the second, lying just anterior to it, is the PREMOTOR
CORTEX. The planning of complex actions occurs in the
premotor cortex.
The third area, is the PREFRONTAL CORTEX. The
prefrontal cortex is the portion of the frontal cortex lying
anterior to the premotor and primary motor cortices.

the executive prefrontal cortex, occupying the dorsal and

lateral aspects of the prefrontal cortex;
the paralimbic prefrontal cortex, occupying the orbital and
medial aspects of the prefrontal cortex;
the anterior cingulate area.

Executive/Dorsolateral
Prefrontal Cortex
The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex receives
innervation from both the parietal and the
temporal association cortices.
The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is responsible for
executive aspects of cognition.

cognitive speed and flexibility,

task sequencing,
higher-order attention,
working memory.

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex projects to the

premotor cortex lying just posterior to it,
suggesting its role in the transformation of sensory
information into preparation for movement.

Paralimbic/Orbitofrontal
Cortex

Regarded as an extension of the limbic system.

It is involved in complex aspects of human behavior,
such as regulation of IMPULSES, MOOD, AND
PERSONALITY.
The orbitofrontal cortex receives innervation from the
mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus, which in turn
receives input from almost all other cortical structures.
The orbitofrontal cortex has reciprocal connections to
the amygdala both through the ventral amygdalofugal
tract and through the stria terminalis. These pathways
provide the orbitofrontal cortex with access to all
information necessary to respond to the environment
with respect to the motivational and cognitive state of
the individual.

Anterior Cingulate Gyrus

The cingulate gyrus spans the medial surface of the
brain from the prefrontal cortex to the parietooccipital junction.
Providing a bridge between the systems performing
emotional, cognitive, motor, and sensory processing.
The anterior cingulate is involved in attention, drive,
motivation, memory, and initiation of speech.
Dysfunction causes:
Apathy.
Akinetic mutism in which the person is alert but
has tremendous inertia, with little spontaneous
movement or speech.
Obsessive compulsive disorder

Basal Ganglia and Ventral

Striatum
The striatum consists of the caudate and the putamen.
The more dorsal components of the striatum are associated with
the extrapyramidal system and motor control.
The more ventral areas are involved in motivation, cognition, and
emotion.
At their ventralmost extent, the caudate and putamen appear to
merge into a single structure, called the nucleus accumbens.
The striatum is composed of

Striosomes : acetylcholinesterase-poor patches

rich in opiate receptors.
have high levels of D1 receptors and prominent limbic input.
mostly involved in cognitive and behavioral processing.

An acetylcholinesterase-rich matrix.
rich in D2 receptors with close connections to the substantia
nigra.
whereas the matrix is a major component of the extrapyramidal
motor system.

PICTURES OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM

From : Human Hippocampus

1. hippocampus;
2. parahippocampal gyrus;
3. fusiform gyrus;
4. inferior temporal gyrus;
5. middle temporal gyrus;
6. superior temporal gyrus;
7. lateral fissure;
8. postcentral gyrus;
9. central sulcus;
10. precentral gyrus;
11. superior frontal gyrus;
12. cingulate gyrus;
13. corpus callosum;
14. lateral ventricle;
14. caudate nucleus;
15. thalamus;
16. putamen;
17. temporal (inferior) horn
of the lateral ventricle;
18. red nucleus;
19. substantia nigra;
20. pons;
21. tentorium cerebelli;
22. ambient cistern

From : Human Hippocampus

Intraventricular aspect of the

hippocampus.
(The temporal horn has been opened
and the choroid plexuses removed.)

1.hippocampal body
2.head and digitationes
hippocampi (internal
digitations)
3.hippocampal tail
4.fimbria
5.crus of fornix
6.Subiculum
7.splenium of the corpus
callosum;
8.calcar avis
9.collateral trigone
10.collateral eminence
11.uncal recess of the
temporal horn

From : Human Hippocampus

1. anterior paraolfactory sulcus

(subcallosal sulcus)
2. cingulate sulcus
3. subparietal sulcus
4. anterior calcarine sulcus;
5. collateral sulcus
6. rhinal sulcus. Limbic gyrus:
7. subcallosal gyrus;
8. posterior paraolfactory sulcus;
9. cingulate gyrus;
10. isthmus;
11. parahippocampal gyrus,
posterior part; 11,
parahippocampal gyrus, anterior
part (piriform lobe).
12. entorhinal area;
13. ambient gyrus;
14. semilunar gyrus;
15. prepiriform cortex. Intralimbic
gyrus:
16. prehippocampal rudiment; 16,
paraterminal gyrus;
17. indusium griseum.
Hippocampus:
18. gyrus dentatus;
19. cornu Ammonis;
20. gyri of Andreas Retzius;
21. fimbria (displaced upwards,
arrows);
22. uncal apex;
23. band of Giacomini;
24. uncinate gyrus;
25. anterior perforated substance;
26. anterior commissure;
27. fornix;
28. corpus callosum
From : Human Hippocampus

1. anterior paraolfactory sulcus

(subcallosal sulcus)
2. cingulate sulcus
3. subparietal sulcus
4. anterior calcarine sulcus;
5. collateral sulcus
6. rhinal sulcus. Limbic gyrus:
7. subcallosal gyrus;
8. posterior paraolfactory sulcus;
9. cingulate gyrus;
10. isthmus;
11. parahippocampal gyrus,
posterior part; 11,
parahippocampal gyrus, anterior
part (piriform lobe).
12. entorhinal area;
13. ambient gyrus;
14. semilunar gyrus;
15. prepiriform cortex. Intralimbic
gyrus:
16. prehippocampal rudiment; 16,
paraterminal gyrus;
17. indusium griseum.
Hippocampus:
18. gyrus dentatus;
19. cornu Ammonis;
20. gyri of Andreas Retzius;
21. fimbria (displaced upwards,
arrows);
22. uncal apex;
23. band of Giacomini;
24. uncinate gyrus;
25. anterior perforated substance;
26. anterior commissure;
27. fornix;
28. corpus callosum
From : Human Hippocampus

Schematic view of frontal-subcortical-thalamic circuits, shown at the level of the

pallidum and thalamus. The extrapyramidal motor circuit involves the globus pallidus
interna (GPi) and ventral lateral nucleus of the thalamus (VLo) and connects to the
supplementary motor cortex. The related circuit of the ventral striatum involves the
ventral pallidum (VP) and mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus (MD) and connects to
the prefrontal cortex. IC = internal capsule; III = third ventricle; R = reticular nucleus of
the thalamus; GPe = globus pallidus externa.

Afferents of Amygdala
AC

Olfactory
System
Association cortical area/
higher sensory area
(associated with visual,
auditory, tactile senses)
(associated with visual,
auditory, tactile senses)
Diencephalon, Septum
Nacc. striatum
Brainstem
(viscerosensory relay nuclei: solitary
nucleus and parbrachial nucleus for taste)
Hypothalamus
VTA

AMYGDALA
Corticomedial Nuclear
Group
Basolateral Nuclear
Group
Central Nucleus

Efferents of Amygdala
association cortical area
higher order sensory area
AC

Amygdalocortical Fibers

striatum
Amygdalostriatal Fibers

Septal Nuclei
Hypothalamus

AMYGDALA

Stria Terminalis

Corticomedial Nuclear
Group

DM of Thalamic Nucleus
Nacc.
Hypothalamus
HF, EC

Basolateral Nuclear
Group
Central Nucleus

Nuclei of
ANS

Ventral
Amygdalofugal Fibers

Nucleus accumbens
(Nacc.)
Reward centre
MOTOR CORTEX

PMA/SMA
PREFRONTAL
CORTEX
DA
Glu

VTA

Herorine
nicotine

GP

DA

VA/VLP
PRESS LEVER

SPONTANEOUS MOVE TO ATTEDED SIDE

ACC
ACG

ATTENTION,FREEZ,ARREST REACTION

Neurocircuitry of reward:
The mesolimbic dopaminergic
pathway

http://journals.prous.com/journals/dof/20073205/html/df320429/images/fig01.jpg