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Halogenation of Alkanes
RH + X2 RX + HX
Reactive Intermediates
Orbital hybridization in carbocations and carbanions:
Reactive Intermediates:
Free Radicals
Free radicals can be thought of as sp2 hybridized or
quickly interconverting sp3 hybridized.
Energetics
RH + X2 RX + HX
explosive for F2
exothermic for Cl2 and Br2
endothermic for I2
Halogenation Thermodynamics
Chlorination of Methane
Chlorination of Methane
carried out at high temperature (400 C)
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
CH3Cl + Cl2 CH2Cl2 + HCl
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 CHCl3 + HCl
CHCl3 + Cl2 CCl4 + HCl
Mechanism of Chlorination of
Methane
Question
A)
B)
C)
Which of the above initiates reactions most readily?
..
. Cl:
..
H3C .
..
H : Cl:
..
..
..
H3C : Cl: + . Cl:
..
..
..
. Cl:
..
H3C .
..
H : Cl:
..
..
..
H3C : Cl: + . Cl:
..
..
..
..
H3C : Cl: + H : Cl:
..
..
..
. Cl:
..
H3C .
..
H : Cl:
..
..
..
H3C : Cl: + . Cl:
..
..
..
..
H3C : Cl: + H : Cl:
..
..
Termination Steps
stop chain reaction by consuming free radicals
..
H3C . + . Cl:
..
..
H3C : Cl:
..
Question
A) initiation
B) propagation
C) chain-terminating
D) bond cleavage
Question
For the free-radical reaction below, light is
involved in which of the following reaction
steps?
A) Initiation only
B) Propagation only
C) Termination only
D) Initiation and propagation
Chlorination of Alkanes
can be used to prepare alkyl chlorides
from alkanes in which all of the hydrogens
are equivalent to one another
CH3CH3 + Cl2
420C
CH3CH2Cl + HCl
(78%)
+ Cl2
Cl + HCl
(73%)
Chlorination of Alkanes
Major limitation:
Chlorination gives every possible
monochloride derived from original carbon
skeleton.
Not much difference in reactivity of
different hydrogens in molecule.
Example
Chlorination of butane gives a mixture of
1-chlorobutane and 2-chlorobutane.
(28%)
CH3CH2CH2CH2Cl
CH3CH2CH2CH3
Cl2
h
CH3CHCH2CH3
(72%)
Cl
10%
10%
10%
10%
10%
10%
10%
10%
10%
18%
18%
4.6%
4.6%
4.6%
4.6%
4.6%
4.6%
18%
18%
18%
4.6%
4.6
=1
4.6
18
4.6
= 3.9
CH3
CH3CCH2Cl
H
Cl2
h
CH3
CH3CCH3
(37%)
Cl
Question
7.0%
37%
=1
37
7
= 5.3
Radicals - Resonance
Question
True (A) / False (B)
Question
True (A) / False (B)
> RCH3
bromination: 1640
82
Radicals - Bromination
Question
How many mono-bromination products are expected from the
following reaction?
A. 5
B. 4
C. 3
D. 2
E. 1
Cl
Cl2
h
(64%)
Question
Br2
h
Br
CH3CCH2CH2CH3
CH3
(76%)
Question
Which of the following best describes a mechanistic feature of
the free-radical bromination (Br2, light) of 2methylpropane?
A) The initiation step involves cleavage of a C-H bond.
B) The free-radical (CH3)3C is produced in one
propagation step and reacts with Br2 in another.
C) The reaction is characterized by the homolytic
cleavage of the C-Br bond.
D) The reaction is concerted; i.e., it occurs in a single step.
Question
Which reaction has a faster rate?
Which product is kinetically favored?
I)
A. I) and I)
II)
Question
Which reaction has a propagation step that is endothermic?
Which reaction is more regioselective?
I)
A. I) and I)
II)
Stereochemistry
Three mono-substituted isomers form in the
halogenation of butane. The products are optically
inactive.
Question
True (A) / False (B)
Bromination of optically active 3-methylhexane
produces only (S)-3-bromo-3-methylhexane.
Question
How many products (including stereoisomers) are
expected in the following halogenation?
A. 5 B. 4 C. 3 D. 2 E. 1
Allylic/Benzylic Bromination
Resonance and regioselectivity:
Br-
Allylic/Benzylic Bromination
N-bromosuccinimide (NBS)
Question
What is the major product of the following reaction?
NBS, h, CCl4
A.
B.
C.
D.
Br
Br
Br
Br
Polymers
Radical Polymerization
Free radical conditions are frequently used to form
polymers.
Recall that a polymerization process joins together
many small units called monomers in a long chain.
Radical Polymerization
Radical polymerizations commonly proceed through
a chain reaction mechanism.
Radical Polymerization
Radical Polymerization
Radical Polymerization
Radical polymerizations generally produce chains of
monomers with a wide distribution of lengths.
Because the mechanism proceeds through 1 carbon
free radical intermediates, it is usually difficult.
Radical Polymerization
Branching is common in radical polymerizations.
Radical Polymerization
Many derivatives of ethylene are polymerized.
Radical Polymerization
Stereoregular Polymers
atactic
isotactic
syndiotactic
Atactic Polypropylene
Isotactic Polypropylene
Syndiotactic Polypropylene
Properties of Polymers
Free Radical
Polymerization