BPD20403

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
By:
Associate Professor Dr. Narimah Kasim

 Introduction
Classification

of Structure
Types of Structure
Structural Design
What is structural analysis?
Idealization of Structure
Structural Problems
Stability & Determinacy

What is STRUCTURE?
A structure is refers to a system of connected
parts used to support a load. (Hibbeler, 2009)

Structure related to civil engineering includes:

Buildings, Bridges, Tower, Tunnel, and etc.

Structure

related to other branches of

engineering includes:
Ship, Aircraft frames, Tanks, Pressure vessels,

Mechanical systems, Electrical supporting structures

and etc.

The following elements should be

considered by engineers who are involved
in civil engineering works when designing
a structure, includes:
Safety
Aesthetics
Serviceability
Economic
Environmental
Materials availability

 Definition

of structure

structure is a part of construction

which has one or more element is
subjected to various loads that it
must resist without either collapsing
or deforming excessively
(Bambang Prihartanto et. al, 2008)

Rafter

Beam

Column
Support

Structural Elements:
(a) Tie Rods
(b) Beams
(c) Columns

(a)

Tie Rods

Tie Rods or Bracing struts are structural

members pointed to a tensile force.

These elements are slender and are often

chosen from rods, bars, angels or channels.

Rod

Bar

Channel

Tie Rod

Angle

Typical Cross Sections

 (b)

Beams

Beams are usually straight horizontal

members used primarily to carry vertical

loads.
Materials commonly used for beams
structure such as:

Steel
Aluminium
Concrete
Timber

Beams can be classified according the

way they are supported (Figure 1.2-2)

 (b)

Beams

Beams are primarily designed to oppose

bending moment and large internal shear

force (when beams are short and carry
large loads).
Beam cross section for metal materials
such as steel and aluminium
(Figure 1.2-3) .
The forces developed in the top and
bottom flanges of the beam form the
necessary couple used to resist the
applied moment M, while the web is
effective in resisting the applied shear V.

The beam cross section normally a single

unit in rolling mill in lengths up to 23m.
If long span beams required and loads
applied are rather large, the cross section
may take the form of a plate girder
(Picture 1).
This member is fabricated by using a large
plate for the web and welding or bolting
plates to its ends for flanges.
The girder is often transported to the field
in segments, and the segments are
designed to be spliced or joined together at
points where the girder carries a small
internal moment.

Picture 1: Typical Splice Plate Joints Used to Connect the Steel

Girders of a Highway Bridge (source: Hibbeler, 2009)

 Concrete

beams generally have

rectangular cross sections, since it is
easy to construct this form directly in
the field.
Concrete with reinforcing steel are
combined/cast together to resist tension.
Precast concrete beams and girders are
fabricated at yard and then transported
to the construction site.

Prestressed Concrete Girders are Simply Supported for Highway Bridge

(source: Hibbeler, 2009)

Steel Reinforcement for Concrete Beams

(source: Hibbeler, 2009)

 Timber

beams are made from sawn

timber from a solid of wood or
laminated.
Laminated beams are constructed
from solid sections of wood, which
are fastened together using highstrength glues.

 Columns

are
members
that
generally vertical and resist axial
compressive loads.
Tubes and wide-flange cross sections
are normally used for metal columns.
Circular and square cross sections
with reinforcing rods are used for
concrete columns.
Beam columns are subjected to both
an axial load and a bending moment.

Columns (source: Hibbeler, 2009)

Beam Columns
(source: Hibbeler, 2009)

 Types

of Structure:

Trusses
Cables and Arches
Frames
Surface Structures

Structural

Forms

Tension & Compression Structure

Flexural Beam & Frame Structure
Surface Structures

 The

combination of structural
elements and the materials from
which they are composed is referred
to as a structural system.
The structural systems are
constructed of one or more of four
basic types of structures such as
trusses, cables and arches, frames,
and surface structures.

Truss is a span of a structure which required

being large and its depth is not an important
criterion for design and consist of slender
element with triangular fashion arrangement.
Trusses are supported compression and
tension forces in the members.
One of the advantages of using truss compared
to beam is that it uses less material to
support a given load.
Trusses are constructed from long and slender
elements which can be arranged in various
methods to support load. The truss spans are
economically ranging from 9m to 122m and
greater lengths.

Types of trusses:

Planar trusses

Planar trusses are composed of members

that lie in the same plane. Commonly used
for bridge and roof support.

Space trusses

Space trusses are composed of members

extending in three dimensions and are
suitable for derricks and towers.

Compression and Tension in Truss Members

(source: Hibbeler, 2009)

Cables are one of the structures usually

flexible and carry their loads in tension and can
be used to span long distances (greater than 46
m).
Cables are regularly used to support bridges
and building roofs.
Cables will not become unstable and suddenly
collapse, because they are always in tension.
However, using of cables can reduced their sag,
weight, and methods of anchorage for the
purposes of truss construction which required
added costs and increased depth as the span
increases.

Cables (support loads in tension)

(source: Hibbeler, 2009)

 Arch

is rigid and reverse curvature

form, which can achieve compression
strength.
In order to maintain the shape of the
arches, shear and moment loadings
should be considered in the design
process.
Arches are regularly used in bridge
structures, dome roofs, and for opening
in masonry walls.

Arches (support loads in compression)

(source: Hibbeler, 2009)

Frames are composed of beams and

columns that are either pin or fixed
connected and often used in buildings.
The strength of the frames is derived from
the moment interactions between the
beams and the columns at the rigid joints.
For the economic purposes the
construction of frames must using smaller
beams sizes and increasing the size of the
columns due to the beam-column action
caused by bending at the joints.

Frame Members
(source: Hibbeler, 2009)

Example of Steel Frame

(source: Hibbeler, 2009)

surface structure is made from

rigid materials such as reinforced
concrete, folded plates, cylinders, or
hyperbolic
paraboloids,
and
is
referred to as thin plates or shells.
It is act like cables or arches which
support tension or compression
loads and very little bending.

Surface Structures Georgia Dome, Atlanta(source: Hibbeler, 2009)

 Tension

& Compression
Structure
Column, strut (compression)
Cable-supported structure (tension)
Arch (compression)
Truss (compression & tension)

 Flexural

Beam &
Frame
Structure
Beam
Frame
Combination

(bridges,
building)

 Surface

Structures

Slabs
Folded plates
Shells
Domes
Skin-type structures
Inflatable members

 Structural

design is required to give

consideration to both materials and load
uncertainties.
Materials uncertainties involved;
Variability in materials properties,
Residual stress in materials,
Measurement being different from fabricated

sizes,
Accidental loadings due to vibration or
impact,
Material corrosion or decay.

Typical load combinations

(ASCE 7-05 Standard)

Dead Load
0.6 (Dead Load) + Wind Load
0.6 (Dead Load) + 0.7 (Earthquake Load)

Load combinations to account uncertainty

loads (ASCE 7-05 Standard) :
1.4 (Dead Load)
1.2 (Dead Load) + 1.6 (Live Load) + 0.5 (Snow Load)
1.2 (Dead Load) + 1.5 (Earthquake Load) + 0.5 (Live

Load)

 Specific

structures should be analysed

in order to ensure its strength and
rigidity after preliminary design of a
structure is proposed.

Structural

analysis

is a process in determining the reaction

of the structure under the specified
loads or actions (Bambang Prihartanto et. al, 2008)

 The

reaction can be measured by

establishing the forces and
deformations throughout the structure.
The results from structural analysis
can be used to;
redesign the structure,
determine accurate weight of the

members, and
account size of the members.

 In

order to analyse a structure

properly, the following steps must be
follow:
Identify the structures
Idealization of the structures
Loading determination (codes and local

specifications)
Structure members forces and
displacements (using theory of structural
analysis)

Cables (source: Bambang et. al, 2008)

Trusses (source: Bambang et. al, 2008)

Arches (source: Bambang et. al, 2008)

Supports (source: Bambang et. al, 2008)

Compression & Tension (source: Bambang et. al, 2008)

Surface Structures (Curved Surface, Flat Plate)

(source: Bambang et. al, 2008)

 Idealization

of Structures is
idealizing model from actual
structure in line diagram in order to
perform structural analysis of the
members.

Usually,

structure can be idealized in

2 dimensional from 3 dimensional.

Idealization of Structures Beam Actual Beam (b) Idealized Beam

(source: Bambang et. al, 2008)

Idealization of Structures Frames Actual Structure (b) Idealized Structure

(source: Bambang et. al, 2008)

Idealization of Structures Supports

(a) Roller support (b) Hinged support (source: Bambang et. al, 2008)

Idealization of Structures Supports

(c) Fixed support (d) Link support
(e) Ball and socket (f) Rigid support in space
(source: Bambang et. al, 2008)

Idealization of Structures Connection (a) Idealized hinge (b) Idealized rigid joint
(source: Bambang et. al, 2008)

 Structure

analysis should considered

structural problems of structure
members in order to improve the
stability of the structures.
The method of analysis can be
divided to traditional (educational
process) or modern matrix methods
(practice of structural engineering).

STRUCTURE

Unstable

Stable
Determinate

Static

Indeterminate

External

Internal

Geometry

 There

are two types of structural un-stability:

(i) Kinematics Unstable (Partial Constraints)

Number of reaction at the support or number of the
member is less than the minimum requirement.
One of structure members may have fewer reactive
forces than equations of equilibrium that must be
satisfied and the structure then becomes only partially
constrained.
(ii) Geometry Unstable (Improper

Constraints)

The location or the arrangement of the support or

member is improper.

 (i)
r
r

Beam

<n+3
=n+3

: Statically unstable
: Determinate
(only if
geometrically stable)
r > n + 3
: Indeterminate

 (ii)
3m

Frame

+ r < 3j + n
unstable
3m + r < 3j + n

: Statically
: Determinate
(only if

geometrically stable)
3m + r > 3j + n
: Indeterminate

 (iii)
m
m

Plane Truss

< 2j r : Statically unstable

= 2j r : Determinate
(only if
geometrically stable)
m > 2j r : Indeterminate

 (iv)
m
m

Space Truss

< 3j r : Statically unstable

= 3j r : Determinate
(only if
geometrically stable)
m > 3j r : Indeterminate

 Where,
n =
r =
m =
j =

number
number
number
number

of
of
of
of

internal hinge
reaction
member
joint

Bambang Prihartanto, Sharul Niza Mokhatar,

Nurazuwa Md Noor, Noorli Ismail and
Norhafizah Saleh (2008). Structural
Analysis, Penerbit UTHM: Parit Raja, Batu
Pahat, Johor.
Hibbeler, R.C. (2009). Structural Analysis,
7th Edition, Prentice Hall: Singapore
Noorli Ismail (2008). Mechanics of
Materials, Penerbit UTHM: Parit Raja, Batu
Pahat, Johor.
Yusof Ahmad (2001). Mekanik Bahan dan
Struktur, Penerbit UTM: Skudai, Johor.
Yusof Ahmad (2004). Teori Struktur,
Penerbit UTM: Skudai, Johor.

 Determinacy

and Stability