Sof Skills Note

ESSENTIAL SOFT
SKILLS FOR
ENGINEERS
1.1 The Evolution of Management

The origin of management : man started living in
groups.
Strong men organized the masses into
intelligence, physical and mental capabilities.
Well-recognized principles of management
groups:
Ancient Greece,
the organization of the Roman Catholic Church and
the organization of military forces.
Industrial Revolution: structure of industry became
extremely complex.
Formal theory of management - modern management
2
Management is a vital aspect of the economic life of
man, which is an organized group activity.

The productive resources material, labour, capital
etc. are entrusted to the organizing skill,
administrative ability and enterprising initiative of
the management.
Management provides leadership to a business
enterprise.
Under competitive economy and ever-changing
environment the quality and performance of
managers determine both the survival as well as
success of any business enterprise.
3
There are many definitions of management .

Management as a Process:
Management as Coordination:
Management as a Function:
Management is getting things done through
other people:
A comprehensive definition of Management:

Management is guiding human and physical
resources into a dynamic organization units that

attain their objectives to the satisfaction of those
served and with the high degree of moral and sense
of attainment on the part of those rendering the
services.
Management is the process of getting things done
through the efforts of other people in order to

achieve
the
predetermined
objectives
of
organization.
5
1.4 Managers: 1.4.1 Definition

A manager is someone who works with and through
other people by coordinating their work activities in

order to accomplish organizational goals.
Manager is a person who under take the tasks and
function of managing at any level, in any kind of
enterprise.
A manager is someone who
coordinates and oversees the
work of other people so that
organizational goals can
be accomplished.
6
1.4.2 Managerial Job/Roles in an Organization

Managers fulfill a variety of roles.
A role is an organized set of behaviors that is
associated with a particular office or position.

It is an expected set of activities or behaviors
stemming from a job/postion.
According to the early study conducted by Professor
H. Mintzberg there are three main categories of roles
which a manager usually does in any organization.
Under each category there are also
sub managerial roles
7
Cont
Interpersonal roles are roles that involve people
and other duties that are ceremonial and symbolic in

nature.
The three interpersonal roles include being a
figurehead, leader, and liaison.
The figurehead performs symbolic legal or social
duties.
The Leader builds relationships with employees and
communicates with, motivates, and coaches them.
The liaison establishes and maintains a network of
contacts outside the work unit to obtain information.
8
Cont
and
2. Informational roles involve receiving, collecting,
disseminating information.
The three informational roles include a monitor,
disseminator, and spokesperson.
The monitor seeks internal and external information
about issues that can affect the organization.
The disseminator transmits information internally that
is obtained from either internal or external sources.
The spokesperson transmits
information about the organization
to outsiders.
Cont
3. Decisional roles involves making significant decisions
that affect the organization. The four decisional roles
include entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource
allocator, and negotiator.
The entrepreneur acts as an initiator, designer, and
encourager of change and innovation.
The disturbance handler takes corrective action when
the organization faces important, unexpected difficulties.
The resource allocator distributes resources of all types,
including time, funding, equipment, and human resources.
The negotiator represents the organization in major
negotiations affecting the managers areas of responsibility
Appropriate Technology
10
Continued: THE SEVENTEEN MANAGERIAL ROLES
Other researchers further extended the study made
by Prof. H Mintzberg and found out other roles played

by managers. According to them there are seventeen
roles played by managers.
Furthermore,
the roles delineated by these
researchers are associated with the major managerial
functions to which they most closely pertain
11
Managers: Definition
12
1.4.3 Levels of Management

The level of management takes the shape of a
pyramid.
As the pyramidal shape in figure illustrates
progressively fewer employees at each higher
managerial level are required.
The largest number of people is at the bottom
organizational level.
13
1.4.3 Levels of Management
14
Cont
First-line managers (or first-line supervisors) are
those
having the least authority and are at the lowest
level in the hierarchy of the organization.

manage the work of non-managerial individuals
Titles often include the term, supervisor.

Factors changing the jobs of first-line managers
emphasis upon worker participation and teamwork
the use of computers to regulate many activities
The jobs of first-line managers are likely to change
toward a greater emphasis on dealing with internal

human relations.
15
Cont
Middle-level managers are those
managers beneath the top-levels of the hierarchy
directly supervise other managers below them .
These
managers manage the work of first-line

managers
Typical titles include manager, director of, chief,
department head and division head.
Middle
managers
are
mainly
responsible
for
implementing overall organizational plans so that
organizational goals are achieved as expected.
They monitor and manage the performance of the
subunits and individual managers who report to them.
16
Cont
Top managers are those managers
at the very top levels of the hierarchy
who have the most authority
who
are ultimately responsible for the entire

organization.
Other titles include chief executive officer (CEO),
president, executive vice president, executive
director, senior vice president, and sometimes, vice
president.
They oversee overall planning for the organization, work
with middle managers in implementing and planning, and
maintain overall control over the progress of the
organization.
17
1.4.4 Resources used by Managers

Managers use four types of resources to accomplish
their purposes.
Human resources are the people needed to get the
job done
Financial resources are the money the manager and
the organization use to reach organizational goals
Physical resources are a firms tangible goods and
real estate, including raw materials, office space,
production facilities, office equipment, and vehicles.
Information resources are the data that the manager
and the organization use to get the job done.
18
1.4.5 Mistakes managers make

Insensitive to others: abrasive, intimidating, bullying
style.
Cold, aloof, arrogant.
Betrayal of trust.
Overly ambitious: thinking of next job, playing politics.
Specific performance problems with the business.
Over managing: unable to delegate or build a team.
Unable to staff effectively.
Unable to think strategically.
Unable to adapt to boss with different style.
Over dependent on advocate or mentor.
19
1.5 Necessity of management

(1)
Management is an essential activity of all

organizational level: (Low, middle, and upper level)
(2) Management applies to:
Small and large Organizations.
Profit and non-profit Organization.
Manufacturing Organization.
Service rendering Organization.
The importance of studying management in todays
dynamic global environment can be explained by

looking at the universality of management, the
reality of work, and the rewards and challenges
of being a manager.
20
Cont
The Universality of Management: Management
is needed in all types and sizes of organizations,

at
all
organizational
levels,
and
in
all
organizational work areas throughout the world.
The Reality of Work: All employees of an
organization either manage or are managed.
Rewards and Challenges of Being a Manager
Challenges
Difficulty in effectively blending the knowledge, skills,
ambitions, and experiences of a diverse group of

employees.
Success is dependent on others work performance
21
Cont
Rewards
opportunity to create good work
receive recognition and status in the
organization
Knowing that their efforts, skills, and abilities
are needed by the organization gives many
managers great satisfaction.
22
1.6 Functions of Management

Management has five functions
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Staffing
4. Directing / Leading
5. Controlling
23
1.6.1 Planning
Planning
is often called the primary management

function because it establishes the basis for all other
functions. Planning involves two important elements:
goals and plans.
Managers begin the planning process by developing
strategic plans and then continue by breaking down
these plans into annual, monthly, weekly, and daily
plans.
Effective plans emerge by involving employees in the
process right from the start as their experience, skills
and expertise is indispensable for the formulation of
realistic plan.
24
1.6.1.2 Definitions
There are many definitions of planning. some of them
are reviewed as under.

According to Fayol: "The plan of action is, at one
and the same time, the result envisaged, the line of
action to be followed, the stages to go through, and
the methods to use. It is a kind of future picture
wherein proximate events are outlined with some
distinctness."
Planning is deciding in advance what is to be done. It
involves the selection of objectives, policies,
procedures
and
programmes
from
among
alternatives.
25
Cont
According to Louis A Allen:
"Management planning involves the development of

forecasts,
objectives,
policies,
programmes,
procedures, schedules and budgets".
According to Theo Haimann:
"Planning is deciding in advance what is to be done.

When a manager plans, he projects a course of action,
for the future, attempting to achieve a consistent, coordinated structure of operations aimed at the desired
results".
26
Cont
According to Koontz ODonnell:
"Planning is an intellectual process, the conscious

determination of courses of action, the basing of
decisions on purpose, acts and considered
estimates".
Planning involves defining goals, establishing
strategies for achieving those goals, and developing
plans to integrate and coordinate activities.
27
1.6.1.3 The Nature and Purpose of Planning
The essential nature of planning can be defined
by dividing it into four major aspects.

1. The contribution of planning to purpose
and objectives
2. The primacy of planning
3. The pervasiveness of planning
4. The efficiency of plans
28
1.6.1.4 Types of Plans

Plans can be described by their breadth, time frame,
specificity, and frequency of use.

On the basis of Breadth
Strategic
plans (long-term plans) are plans that apply to

the entire organization, and establish the organizations
overall goals.
Operational plans (short-term plans) are plans that specify
the details of how the overall goals are to be achieved.
On the basis of Time frame

Short-term plans are plans that cover one year or less.
Long-term plans are plans with a time frame beyond three
years.
29
Cont
On the basis of Specificity
Specific plans are plans that are clearly defined and
leave no room for interpretation.

Directional plans are flexible plans that set out general
guidelines.
On the basis of Frequency

Single-use plan is a one-time plan specifically designed
to meet the needs of a unique situation.

Standing plans are ongoing plans that provide guidance for
activities performed repeatedly.
30
1.6.1.5 Planning and Performance

Organizations that use formal planning do not
always outperform those that do not plan.

Most studies show positive relationships between
planning and performance.
Effective planning and implementation play a
greater part in high performance than does the
amount of planning done.
Studies have shown that when formal planning
has not led to higher performance, the external
environment is often the reason.
31
1.6.1.6 Characteristics of planning

Planning focuses on achieving the
objectives
Planning is the primary function of
Management
Planning is continuous
Planning is Futuristic
Planning is mental exercise
1.6.1.7 Importance of planning
1.6.1.8 Limitations of planning
32
1.6.1.9 Developing General Planning Skills

An organizations strategic vision defines what the
organization is, wants to be and where it wants go.

An effective strategy guides the decisions that affect
the direction of the organization.
In order to develop successful plans, it is
necessary for managers both to understand their
organizations strategic vision and to incorporate
it into their plans and day-to-day operations.
33
Cont
Consider the following steps:
Become comfortable articulating your
organizations vision and strategic direction.
Link your operational plans with the
organizations vision and strategic direction.
Plan for ongoing review and updates.
34
Cont
The following are typical phases in planning.
1) Determination of Vision, and Mission
2) Analysis of Internal and External Environment
3) Establish Goals
4) Establish Strategies to reach goals
5) Establish Objectives along the way to achieving
goals
6) Associate Responsibilities and time Lines With
Each Objective
7) Write and Communicate a Plan Document
35
Cont
Step 1 : Determination of Mission, Values and
Vision
A mission statement defines the core purpose of the
organizationwhy it exists.
Values are the timeless principles that guide an
organization. They represent the deeply held beliefs
within the organization and are demonstrated through
the day-to-day behaviors of all employees.
A vision statement provides a word
picture of what the organization
intends ultimately to becomewhich may
be 5, 10, or 15 years in the future.
36
Cont
Step
2:
Analysis
Environment
External Analysis:
of
Internal
and
External
o Through external analysis influential factors that affect the
organization performance from external environment such

as competition, pending legislation, and labor supply are
identified.
o After analyzing the external environment, managers must
assess what they have learned in terms of opportunities
and threats
o Opportunities
are
positive
trends
in
external
environmental factors;
o Threats are negative trends in environmental factors
37
Cont
Internal Analysis:
Internal analysis leads to a clear assessment of the
organizations resources and capabilities.
Strengths is any activities the organization does well or
any unique resources that it has.
Weaknesses are activities the organization does not
do well or resources it needs but does not possess..
Core competencies is the organizations major valuecreating skills and capabilities
SWOT analysis is an analysis of the organizations
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats

38
Cont
Step 3: Establish Goals
Goals are desired outcomes for individuals, groups,
or entire organizations.
A goal is the end towards which effort or ambition is
directed.
As a word it has its origins in the point marking the
end of a race or posts between which a ball is to be
driven.
39
Cont
Step 4: Establish Strategies to reach goals
Strategies are the means or the game-plan by
which organization/enterprise mission is put into

practice, and objectives achieved.
It is a comprehensive master plan stating how
corporation will achieve its mission and its objectives.
It maximizes competitive advantage and minimizes
competitive disadvantage..
The typical business firm usually considers three
types of strategy: corporate, business and functional.
40
Cont
Step 5: Establish Objectives along the way to
achieving goals
Objective is a very specific statement of what is to be done
to accomplish the mission/goal. It is an end towards which

effort is directed.
The objectives to be set for an organization should be
specific, measurable, achievable (Agreed) Relevant (to the
mission) or realistic and time bound. (SMART)
A statement of an objective makes clear:
What is to be accomplished?
How much is to be accomplished?
By when it is to be accomplished?
By whom it is to be accomplished
(operational objectives)
41
Cont
Step 6: Associate responsibilities and time
Lines with
each Objective
Step 7: Write and Communicate a Plan
Document
42
Cont
The following are typical phases in planning.
43
1.1.1.2 Developing Action Plans

It is not uncommon for best strategic plans to fall
by the wayside because managers fail to develop

action plans for accomplishing strategic goals as they
get lost in the day-to-day details and loose sight of the
big picture.
Consider the following steps to develop strategic action
plans:
1.Ensure you teams goal matches the broader goals of the
organization.
Rank these goals in priority order. Usually the top two
or three goals are those that will have the greatest
impact on the organizations strategic goals.
44
Cont
3. Define your goals and the roles of your staff in
achieving them. Determine the sources, amount

and quality of support you may need for the
achievement of the defined goals.
4. Determine key result areas, identify the steps
required to achieve these results and identify risks
and plan for contingencies.
5. Develop objective measures of success.
Objectives shall be Specific, Measurable,
Acceptable, Realistic and Time bound (SMART).
6. Put all these into a format that is clear, accessible,
and easy to update.
45
1.1.1.3 Engaging in Proactive Planning

There will always be unforeseeable circumstances
that remain out of ones control, which in many

cases, can successfully be integrated into plans.
The following suggestions may help:
1. Over a short period, keep a list of
discrepancies between
actual performance and
objectives
and
establish
cause
and
effect
relationships.
2. At the end of this period, examine your list
and examine which of the problems could have
been prevented, examine rate of prevalence of some
problems and correct the pattern.
46
1.6.2 Organizing
No one individual alone can accomplish organizational
goals.
Cooperation between employees is required. There should
have defined and assigned roles.
decision making authority with responsibility should be
accorded.
An efficient system should be created that combines
human, financial and physical resources in a synchronized
manner
Organizing is important for creating such a system.
Organizing : It is the process by which managers establish
working relationships among employees to achieve goals.
47
1.6.2.2 Definitions of organization

The term 'Organization' connotes different things to
different people.
It can be assumed as a group of persons working
together or as a structure of relationships or as a
process of management.
ACCORDING TO LOUIS A ALLEN
"Organization is the process of identifying and grouping
the work to be performed, defining and delegating
responsibility and authority, and establishing
relationships for the purpose of enabling people to
work most effectively together in accomplishing
objectives.
48
Cont
IN THE WORDS OF THEO HAIMANN
Organizing is the process of defining and grouping the

activities of the enterprise and establishing the
authority relationships among them. In performing
the organizing function, the manager defines,
departmentalizes and assigns activities so that they
can be most effectively executed.
49
1.6.2.3 The Nature of Organizing and Organization Structure
It is the responsibility of the manager to design a
structure that support and allow employees to

accomplish their own work.
Organizing
is
the
process
of
creating
an
organizations structure.
Organizing involves:
setting up the organizational structure
determining the job to be done
defining lines of authority and responsibility
establishing relationships within the organization
50
Cont
Organization
structure is the formal pattern of

interactions and coordination designed by management
to link the tasks of individuals and groups in achieving
organizational goals.
Organization structure consists primarily of four
elements:
Job design
Departmentalization
Vertical coordination
Horizontal coordination
Sound organization structure contributes greatly to the
continuity and success of the enterprise.
51
Cont
Organizational design is the process of developing or
changing an organizations structure.

It involves decisions about six key elements:
work specialization,
departmentalization,
chain of command,
span of control,
centralization/decentralization,
formalization.
52
Cont
The organization chart is a line diagram that
depicts the broad outlines of an organizations

structure.
It is a graphical representation that shows the formal
organizational structure of a company.
It shows the division of labor, the chain of command,
bureaucracy, and organizational design.
The division of labor is the manner in which jobs are
broken into components or activities, and then
assigned to members or groups.
It is done by delegating specific smaller tasks to many
staff members
53
Cont
The
chain of command is illustrated in the

organizational
structure
by
the
authority
responsibility
relationships
or
links
between
managers and those they supervise.
From the chain of command employees will know to
whom they report and are accountable.
It is also important to note that an employee should
not report to several people at the same time.
This may create a loop within which the employee
receives contradictory directions from different
people
54
Cont
Responsibility is the obligation or expectation to perform
and carry out duties and achieve goals related to a position.

Authority is the right inherent in a managerial position to
tell people what to do and to expect them to do it, right to
make decisions and carry out actions to achieve
organizational goals.
While part of a managers work may be delegated, the
manager remains accountable for results.
Accountability is the requirement of being able to answer
for significant deviations from duties or expected results.
The fact that managers remain accountable for delegated
work may cause them to resist delegation.
55
Cont
Delegation is assignment of part of managers work to
others along with responsibility and authority.

In addition to issues of accountability, managers may
resist delegation for a number of reasons.
Managers may fear if subordinates fail.
Managers may think they lack time to train
subordinates.
Managers may want to hold on to their power.
Managers may enjoy doing the tasks subordinates
could do.
Managers may feel threatened by subordinates.
Managers may not know how to delegate.
56
1.6.2.4 Job Design/Specialization and Departmentalization
Job design is the specification of task activities
associated with each particular job.

Task activities need to be grouped in reasonably logical
ways for each job.
The way the jobs are configured influences employee
motivation.
57
Cont
Job simplification is the process of configuring or
designing jobs so that job holders have only a small

number of narrow, repetitive, activities to perform.
The process of reducing the tasks each worker performs.
Training new workers becomes relatively easy
Major production efficiencies may be gained

if carried too far, job satisfaction
may be destroyed by narrow,

repetitive, boring jobs
58
Cont
Work specialization is the degree to which the
work necessary to achieve organizational goals is

broken down into various jobs.
In Work specialization the tasks in an organization
are divided into separate jobs.
Another term for this is division of labor.
It is viewed as a source of unending productivity
improvements
The disadvantage of work specialization included
boredom, fatigue, stress,
59
Cont
Departmentalization is the clustering of individuals
into units and units into departments and larger units

in order to facilitate achieving organizational goals.
1. An organization design is an overall pattern of
departmentalization
2.
There
are
four
major
patterns
of
departmentalization.
The functional structure
The divisional structure
The hybrid structure
The matrix structure
60
Cont
The functional structure:
positions are grouped according to their main functional
(or specialized) area.
groups jobs into units based upon similarity of expertise,
skills, and work activities, e.g., marketing, accounting.
The divisional structure
positions are grouped according to similarity of products,
services, or markets
also called self-contained structures because each
division contains the major functional resources it needs
to pursue its own goals with little or no reliance on other
divisions.
61
Cont
The hybrid structure
adopts parts of both
functional and divisional

structures at the same level of management.
combines aspects of both the functional and divisional
forms, with some jobs grouped into departments by
functions and other grouped by products or markets
adopted by large organizations
The
matrix
structure
is
a
type
of
departmentalization that superimposes a horizontal
set of divisional reporting relationships onto a
hierarchical functional structure.
62
Cont
Vertical coordination is the linking of activities at the
top of the organization with those at the middle and

lower levels in order to achieve organizational goals.
Formalization is the degree to which written policies,
rules, procedures, job descriptions, and other
documents specify what actions are (or are not) to be
taken under a given set of circumstances.
Span of management or span of control is the
number of subordinates who report directly to a
specific manager.
Spans of management determine the number of
hierarchical levels in an organization.
63
Cont
A tall structure is one that has narrow spans of
management and many hierarchical levels in an

organization.
A flat structure is one that has broader spans of
management and few hierarchical levels and wide
spans of control.
Centralization is the extent to which power and
authority are retained at the top organizational
levels.
Decentralization is the extent to which power and
authority are delegated to lower levels.
64
Cont
An organization is centralized if decisions made at
lower levels are governed by a restrictive set of

policies, procedures, and rules, and if situations not
explicitly covered are referred to higher levels for
resolution.
An organization is decentralized to the extent that
decisions made at lower levels are made within a
general set of policies, procedures, and rules, with
decisions not covered left to the discretion of lowerlevel managers
The configuration of line and staff positions can
affect the vertical integration in organizations.
65
Cont
A line position is a position that has authority and
responsibility for achieving the major goals of the

organization.
A staff position is a position whose primary purpose
is providing specialized expertise and assistance to
line positions.
Line authority differs from staff authority.
Line authority is authority that follows the chain of
command established by the formal hierarchy.
Staff departments have functional authority,
authority over others in the organization in matters
related directly to the staff departments functions.
66
1.6.2.5 Developing an effective structure

There is no one correct way to structure an organization.
A manager performs organizing function with the help of
following steps
1.
2.
3.
4.
Identification of activities
Departmentally organizing the activities
Classifying the authority
Co-ordination between authority and responsibility
In a project setting, project organization will follow the
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).

A WBS is defined as a deliverable oriented
hierarchical decomposition of the work to be executed
by the project team.
67
1.6.3 Staffing: 1.6.3.1 Definition

Staffing is define as Filling and keeping filed,
positions in the organization structure. This process

of staffing is done by ten steps/phases.
1. Identifying the work force requirements.
2. Inventorying the people available.
3. Recruiting
4. Selecting candidates.
5. Planning candidates.
6. Promoting candidate.
7. Appraising candidates.
8. Planning careers of candidates.
9. Training candidate.
10. Developing and compensating candidates and current
jobholders.
68
Cont
69
Cont
70
Cont
71
Cont
72
Cont
73
Cont
The
organizing functions of management entail

combining
a
synchronized system of human
resources, financial and physical resources such that
the firm is able to attain its objectives.
Knowledge as an aspect of organizing functions of
management is concerned with intense acquiring, as
well as, gathering immense information and later on
disseminating the information in the right way.
74
Developing an effective structure

There
is no one correct way to structure an

organization.
The
structure
one chooses will certainly affect
productivity, quality, customer satisfaction, employee
morale and budget among others.
An organizational structure must be designed to
support the organizations vision and mission and
that enhances the stated objectives of the work
unit.
Organizing functions must emanate from the
stated objectives of the organization and/or work unit.
75
Cont
A manager performs organizing function with the
help of following steps:

Identification of activities
Departmentally organizing the activities
Co-ordination between authority and
responsibility
76
Cont
1. Identification of activities All the activities which have to be performed in a
concern have to be identified first..

All these activities have to be grouped and
classified into units.
.
77
Cont
2.
Departmentally organizing the activities - In

this step, the manager tries
to combine and group similar and related
activities into units or
departments. This organization of dividing the
whole concern into
independent units and departments is called
departmentation.
78
Cont
3.

Once the departments are made, the manager likes
to classify the powers and its extent to the managers.
This activity of giving a rank in order to the
managerial positions is called hierarchy.
The clarification of authority helps in bringing
efficiency in the running of a concern.
This helps in avoiding wastage of time, money,
effort, in avoidance of duplication or overlapping of
efforts and this helps in bringing smoothness in a
concerns working.
79
Cont
4.
Co-ordination between authority and

responsibility - Relationships are
established among various groups to enable
smooth interaction toward
the achievement of the organizational goal. Each
individual is made aware
of his authority and he/she knows whom they
have to take orders from
and to whom they are accountable and to whom they
have to report.
80
Cont
In a project setting, project organization will follow the Work
Breakdown Structure (WBS).

A WBS is defined as
a deliverable oriented
hierarchical decomposition of the work to be
executed by the project team.
The work breakdown structure visually defines the scope
into manageable chunks that a project team can
understand, as each level of the work breakdown
structure provides further definition and detail.
A work breakdown structure starts with the project as the
top level deliverable and is further decomposed into
sub-deliverables.
deliverables.
81
Cont
The project team creates the project work breakdown
structure by identifying the

major functional deliverables and subdividing
those deliverables into smaller
systems
and
sub-deliverables.
These
subdeliverables are further decomposed
until a single person can be assigned. At this
level, the specific work packages
required to produce the sub- deliverable are
identified and grouped together.
82
Cont
The work package represents the list of tasks or to-
dos to produce the specific unit of work.

If youve seen detailed project schedules, then youll
recognize the tasks
under the work package as the stuff people need to
complete by a specific time
and within a specific level of effort. These work
packages are usually grouped
and assigned to a specific department to produce the
work
83
1.1.3 Directing / Leading
Directing or Direction function is said to be the heart
of management of process and therefore, is the

central point around which accomplishment of
goals take place.
It is also called as on actuating function of
management because it is through direction that
the operation of an enterprise actually starts.
84
Cont
Being the central character of enterprise, it provides
many benefits to a concern which are as follows:

It Initiates Actions
It integrates Efforts
Means of Motivation
It Provides Stability
Coping up with the changes
Efficient Utilization of Resources
85
Cont
1.
It Initiates Actions Directions is the function which is the starting point

of the work performance of subordinates.
It is from this function that the action takes place,
subordinates understand their jobs and do according to
the instructions laid.
2. It integrates Efforts - Through direction, the
superiors are able to guide, inspire and instruct the
subordinates to work. This can be done through
persuasive leadership and effective communication.
Integration of efforts
brings effectiveness and stability in a concern.
86
Cont
3. Means of Motivation - Direction function helps
in achievement of goals. A
manager makes use of the element of motivation
here to improve the
performances of subordinates. This can be done
by providing incentives
or compensation, whether monetary or non
monetary.
87
Cont..
4.
It Provides Stability - Stability and balance

in concern becomes very
important for long term sun survival in the
market. This can be brought
upon by the managers with the help of four tools or
elements of direction
function judicious
blend of
persuasive
leadership,
effective
communication, strict supervision and efficient
motivation.
88
Cont
Coping up with the changes - It is directing
function which is of use to

meet with changes in environment, both internal
as external. Effective
communication helps in coping up with the changes.
89
Economic requirement
6.
Efficient Utilization of Resources - The

resources can be utilized
properly only when less of wastages, duplication of
efforts, overlapping of
performances, etc. dont take place. This helps in
maximum possible
utilization of resources of men, machine, materials
and money which helps
in reducing costs and increasing profits.
90
1.1.4 Controlling
Controlling is the measuring and correcting of
activities of subordinates, to
ensure that events conform to plans. It measures
performance against goals and
plans, shows where negative deviations exist,
and, by putting in motion actions to
correct deviations, helps ensure accomplishment
of plans.
91
Cont
Following are the characteristics of controlling function
of management: 1. Controlling is an end function (feedback) - A

function which comes once the performances are
made in conformities with plans.
2. Controlling is
a pervasive function- which
means it is performed by managers at all levels and
in all type of concerns.
3. Controlling is forward looking (feed forward) because effective control is not possible without past
being controlled. Controlling always looks to future
so that follow-up can be made whenever required.
92
Cont
4. Controlling is
a dynamic process
(concurrent) - since controlling requires taking
review methods, changes have to be made
wherever possible.
5. Controlling is
related with planning Planning and Controlling are two inseparable
functions of management. Without planning,
controlling is a meaningless
exercise
and
without controlling, planning
is
useless. Planning presupposes controlling and
controlling succeeds
planning.
93
1.1.4.2 Steps in controlling

1. Establish performance standards. Performance
standards give employees an idea of what is

expected of them and tells them how you assess
their performance.
2. Monitor and measure performance. Draw up a
new business plan and assess current performance
against expectations.
94
Cont
3. Compare your measured performance against
established standards.
4. Determine the reason for the deviation.
5. Take corrective action. This is often a difficult
aspect of the controlling
function of management. When problems arise,
handle the situations fast
and efficiently. Ignoring a challenging situation only
makes things worse. .
95
1.7. General Principles of Management

A management principle is a statement of general
truth about organization.

the fourteen principles enumerated by Henry Fayol
forms the basis for modern management.
1. Division of Work
Division of work means dividing the work on the
principle that different workers are best fitted for
different jobs depending on their personal aptitude,
knowledge and skill.
It leads to specialization and is applicable to all kinds
of work, weather technical or managerial.
96
Cont
2. Authority and responsibility
Henri Fayol finds authority and responsibility to be
related with the latter arising from the former

Authority means the right of a superior to give order
to his subordinates; responsibility means obligation
for performance
. The issue of commands followed by responsibility
for their consequences.
This principle suggests that there must be parity
between authority and responsibility. They are coexistent and go together, and are two sides of the
same coin.
97
Cont
3. Discipline
Discipline refers to obedience, proper conduct in
relation to others, respect of authority, etc. Discipline

means sincerity, obedience, respect of authority &
observance of rules and regulations of the enterprise.
This principle applies that subordinate should respect
their superiors and obey their order.
essential for the smooth functioning of all
organizations.
Discipline is not only required on path of subordinates
but also on the part of management
98
Cont
4. Unity of Command
This principle states that every subordinate should
receive orders and be accountable to one and only

one superior.
If an employee receives orders from more than one
superior, it is likely to create confusion and conflict.
Unity of Command also makes it easier to fix
responsibility for mistakes.
99
Cont
5. Unity of Direction
each group of activities with same objective must
have one head and one plan.
all those working in the same line of activity must
understand and pursue the same objectives.
all related activities should be put under one group,
there should be one plan of action for them, and they
should be under the control of one manager.
seeks to ensure unity of action, focusing of efforts
and coordination of strength.
Without unity of direction, unity of action and unity
of command is not possible.
100
6. Subordination of individuals interest to general

interest
An organization is much bigger than the individual it
constitutes therefore interest of the undertaking

should prevail in all circumstances.
Management/employees must put aside personal
considerations and put company objectives first.
The interests of goals of the organization must
prevail over the personal interests of individuals.
In order to achieve this attitude, it is essential that
Employees should be honest & sincere.
Proper & regular supervision of work.
Reconciliation of mutual differences and clashes by
mutual agreement.
101
Cont
7. Remuneration
Remuneration and method of payment should be
fair and have maximum possible satisfaction to
employees and employer.
Workers must be paid sufficiently as this is a chief
motivation of employees and therefore greatly
influences productivity.
Wages should be determined on the basis of cost of
living, work assigned, financial position of the
business, wage rate prevailing etc.
102
Cont..
Centralization
concentration of decision making authority at the top
management.
top management retains most of the decision making
authority
Decentralization
Sharing of authority with lower levels
sharing of decision making authority to all the levels
of the organization
Everything which goes to increase the importance of
the subordinates role is
The organization should strive to achieve a proper
balance.
103
9. Scalar Chain
The principle suggests that there should be a clear line of
authority from top to bottom linking all managers at all

levels. It is considered a chain of command.
Every
orders,
instructions,
messages,
requests,
explanation etc. has to pass through Scalar chain.
But, for the sake of convenience & urgency, this path can
be cut short and this short cut is known as Gang Plank.
In this concept a subordinate may contact a superior or
his superior in case of an emergency, defying the
hierarchy of control.
However the immediate superiors must be informed
about the matter.
104
10. Order
This
principle is concerned with proper & systematic

arrangement of things and people.
Classify into material and social order.
material order : arrangement of things
Social order: placement of people
Social order ensures the fluid operation of a company
through authoritative procedure.
Material order ensures safety and efficiency in the workplace.
Social order demands a precise knowledge of the human
requirements and resources of the organization.
A constant balance between these should exist. In terms of
managerial ordera place for everything and everything in
its place, e.g. the organization chart and statement of areas
of responsibility.
105
11. Equity
Equity means combination of fairness, kindness &
justice.
Managers should be fair and impartial when dealing
with employees.
The head of the business should strive to instill a sense
of equity throughout all levels of the scalar chain
Mangers should not discriminate with respect to age,
caste, sex, religion, relation etc.
But equity does not mean total absence of harshness.
Fayol was of opinion that, at times force and harshness
might become necessary for the sake of equity.
106
12. Stability of tenure

Employees should not be moved frequently from one job
position to another
Employees should be appointed after keeping in view
principles of recruitment & selection but once they are
appointed their services should be served.
The period of service should not be too short.
An employee cannot render useful service if he is removed
before he becomes accustomed to the work assigned to
him.
Instability of tenure is at one and the same time cause and
effect of bad running.
Stability of job creates team spirit and a sense of
belongingness among workers which ultimately increase
the quality as well as quantity of work.
107
13. Initiative
eagerness to initiate actions without being asked to
do so.
employees should be give an opportunity to its to
suggest ideas, experiences & new method of work.
helps in developing an atmosphere of trust and
understanding.
add strength and new ideas to an organization.
employees are likely to take greater interest in the
functioning of the organization.
people then enjoy working in the organization
because it adds to their zeal /enthusiathm and energy.
108
14. Esprit decrops

This is the principle that in the union there is
strength.
This principle emphasis on work, and unity of
ommunication in order to accomplish objectives.
It refers to team spirit i.e. harmony in the work
groups and mutual understanding among the
members.
It also refers to the need of managers to ensure and
develop morale in the workplace; individually and
communally.
109
1.2. Managerial Skills

Not everyone can be a manager.
Certain skills, or abilities to translate knowledge into
action to make/help other employees work effectively

and achieve the desired goal
However, the degree (amount) of these skills required
varies (changes) from levels of management and from an
organization to the organization.
These skills fall under the following categories:
1. Conceptual skill
2. Technical skill
3. Human relations skill 4. Decision making skill
5. Problem solving skill 6. Political skill
Whatever the level of management, a manager

needs a combination of all six skills.
110
1.8.1.
Technical skill
Technical
skill involves an understanding of and

proficiency in a specific activity that involves methods,
processes, procedures, or techniques.
help the managers to use different machines and tools.
also helps them to use various procedures and
techniques.
Technical skills include the ability to prepare a budget,
lay out a production schedule, program a computer, or
demonstrate a piece of electronic equipment.
A well-developed technical skill can facilitate the rise
into management.
111
1.8.2. Human relations skill or Interpersonal skill

It refers to managers ability to work effectively as a
team member and to build cooperative effort in the unit.

It is an ability to work with people
Interpersonal skills are more important than technical
skills in getting to the top.
Communication skills are an important component of
interpersonal skills.
It helps the managers to understand, communicate and
work with others.
It also helps the managers to lead, motivate and develop
team spirit.
Human relations skills are required by all managers at all
levels of management.
112
1.8.3. Conceptual skill

It is the ability to see the organization as a total entity.
includes analytical, creative and initiative skills.
involves
recognizing how the various units of the

organization depend on one another and how changes in
any one part affect all the others.
includes visualizing the relationship of the individual
business to the industry; the community; and the political,
social, and economic forces of the nation as a whole.
It helps to identify the causes of the problems and to
solve the problems
helps the manager to fix goals for the whole organization
and to plan for every situation.
113
1.8.4. Problem Solving skills

Managers are frequently called on to investigate a
problem and then to decide on and implement a remedy.

A manager should know how to identify a problem and
to find a best solution for solving any specific
problem.
This requires intelligence, experience and up-to-date
knowledge of the latest developments.
Diagnostic skill often requires other skills, because
managers need to use technical, human, conceptual, or
political skills to solve the problems they diagnose.
Much of the potential excitement in a mangers job
centers on getting to the root of problems and
recommending solutions.
114
1.8.5. Decision-making skills
Decision-making skills are required at all levels
of management.
It is required more at the top-level of
management.
The success or failure of a manager depends
upon the correctness of his decisions.
115
1.8.6. Political skill

Political skill is the ability to acquire the power necessary
to reach objectives.
Managers should be able to get their share of power and
prevent others from taking power away from them.
It includes establishing the right connections and
impressing the right people.
Political skill should be regarded as a supplement to job
competence and the other basic skills.
Managers who overemphasize political skill at the
expense of doing work of substance focus too much on
pleasing company insiders and advancing their own
careers. Too much time invested in office politics takes
time away from dealing with customer problems and
improving productivity.
116
Skills of management at different levels.
The types of managerial skills vary at different
levels:
Top management: Conceptual, decision making,
problem solving, political skills.
Middle management:
Human relations skills,
technical, and decision making skills.
Low level management/Supervisors : Technical
skills.
117
1.3 Problem Solving Skills

What is a problem?
A problem is an opportunity for improvement.
A problem is the difference between the actual
state and desired state.

A problem results from the recognition of a
present imperfect and the belief in the possibility
of a better future
A problem is a situation or condition of people or
the organization that will exist in the system, and
that is considered undesirable by members of the
organization.
118
Cont
Many times ineffective or poor problem solving
techniques have been employed owing to some

factors that constricted perspectives of the problem
solvers. Some of these are:
Bounded Rationality
Satisficing
Groupthink
Conformation Bias
Insufficiency of Hypotheses
Fixation
119
Cont
1. Bounded Rationality:
Propounded by Herbert Simon, the concept of
bounded rationality
assumes
that individuals
make decisions by constructing simplified models
that extract the essential features from problems
without capturing all their complexity.
120
Cont
2. Satisficing:
implies identifying and implementing a solution that
is good enough
results in solving problems which do not lead to
optimal solutions.
Most often, people look for solutions that had worked
for them before. There may be better ways to
reach the outcome, but they simply ignore them.
Searching for alternative and superior solutions
might entail an extra cost.
121
Cont
3. Groupthink:
Groupthink is a phenomenon in which
the
norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal
of alternative courses of action.
It describes situations in which group pressures for
conformity discourage the group from critically
appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views.
Groupthink is a bug that strikes groups and can
dramatically hinder their performance.
122
Cont
4. Conformation Bias:
Conformation bias is the tendency on the part of the
people to search for only for that information

that supports their perceived notions.
Initial perceptions and ideas of people about a
problem often shape the search process for
information.
It is important to maintain objectivity in evaluating
ideas so that they are not biased toward their
initial perceptions.
123
Cont
5. Insufficiency of Hypotheses
Often, while solving problems, a solver seizes upon the
first explanation that comes to mind and stops thinking
about the problem.
This difficulty is related to confirmation bias, but reflects
insufficient thought applied to a problem.
Many times, the immediate answer is sufficient. Other
times, however, only a careful analysis of a situation
beyond the immediate response is necessary to ensure a
correct solution.
To
avoid
poor
problem-solving
resulting
from
insufficiency of hypothesis, people should develop alternative
ideas, rather than seizing upon the first idea as the solution.
124
Cont
6. Fixation
Fixation is the inability to see a problem from a
fresh perspective.
Again, initial perceptions and structuring of a
problem often determine the approaches people use
to solve that problem.
Structuring a problem incorrectly is a prime
contributor to the inability to solve a problem correctly.
To overcome fixation, people should see the problem
with fresh eyes - allow time for reflection and
incubation.
125
1.4 The Problem Solving Process

There is a variety of problem-solving processes. But
each process consists of a series of steps

identifying the problem,
searching for possible solutions,
selecting the most optimal solution and
implementing a possible solution.
It
is useful to view problem solving as a cycle

because, sometimes, a problem needs several
attempts to solve it or the problem changes.
The diagram below shows a seven-step problem
solving process
126
Cont
The diagram below shows a seven-step problem solving
process.
1. Identifying the Problem

2. Exploring the Problem
3. Set Goals
4. Look at alternatives
5. Select the best solution
6. Implementation
7. Evaluation
127
Cont
1. Identifying the Problem:
Refers to seizing up the situation to identify the
problem.
Sometimes managers
might be uncertain about what the problem is;
they might just feel general anxiety or
might be confused about what is getting in the
way of their objectives.
If that is the case, they can ask themselves or
their friends or a professional expert.
128
Cont
2. Exploring the Problem:
Refers to analysis of the problem in order to see what
the root cause is.

Often people get caught up in symptoms or effects of
a problem or issue and never get down to the real
cause.
They get mad at someones attitude, anger, or
actions, which are not the cause of the problem.
The key here is to focus on analyzing the problem
for the real cause without being affected by
emotional issues.
129
Cont
3. Set Goals:
Refers to writing a goal statement that focuses on
what is the successful end of the process.

Making and writing down a goal statement:
helps to clarify the direction to take in solving the
problem; and
gives something definite to focus on
130
Cont
4. Look at alternatives:
Refers to the step to develop possible solutions.
This is a creative as well as practical step where every
possible solution is identified.

One should identify the various alternative solutions
available to him through such techniques as
-Analysis of past solutions
-Reading
-Researching -Thinking
-Asking Questions -Discussing
-Viewing the problem with fresh eyes
-Brainstorming
Sleeping on it
131
Cont
5. Select the best solution:
This step refers to the process of selecting the
best
solution to fix the problem

The selection of the best solution should take in to
account
the circumstances, resources and other
considerations.
There are always a number of things that can affect
a
solution,
for
instance, money, time, people,
procedures, policies, rules, and so on. All of these factors
must be thought about.
Eventually, managers should narrow down the choices to
one best possible solution which will promise the best or
optimal outcomes.
132
Cont
6. Implementation:
Implementation is a crucial part of problem-solving
process.
In order to implement the solution chosen,
managers must
have
an
action
plan and
communicate it to those directly and indirectly
affected.
Gemmy Allen (Problem-Solving
&
DecisionMaking) says that communication is most effective
when it precedes action and events.
133
Cont.
7. Evaluation:
This refers to the review of the effectiveness of the
solution against desired outcomes.

Did the solution work? If not, why not?
What went right, and what went wrong?
What adjustments do they have to make to ensure
that the solution works better?
This stage requires careful analysis that improves
upon the best solution.
134
1.8.1.3 Personality Types & Problem-Solving Orientations
According
to Karl Jungs (Psychological Types),

people are all different in fundamental ways.
Their aptitude and competence to process different
information is limited by their personality type.
There are eight personality types.
Extroverts vs. Introverts
Sensing vs. Intuition
Thinking vs. Feeling
Perceiving vs. Judging
135
Cont
Extroverts vs. Introverts
Extroverts are directed towards the objective world
Introverts are directed towards the subjective
world.
The most common differences between Extroverts
and Introverts are shown below:
136
Priority Areas in Engineering Technology in LDC
137
Cont
Sensing vs. Intuition
Sensing is an ability to deal with information on the
basis of its physical qualities and its relation to other
information.
Intuition is an ability to deal with the information
on the basis of its hidden potential and its possible
existence.
The most common differences between Sensing and
Intuitive types are shown below:
138
139
Cont
Thinking vs. Feeling
Thinking is an ability to deal with information on the
basis of its structure and its function.
Feeling is an ability to deal with information on
the basis of its initial energetic/active condition and
its interactions.
The most common differences between Thinking
and Feeling types are shown below
140
141
Cont
Perceiving vs. Judging
Perceiving types are motivated into activity by the
changes in a situation.
Judging types are motivated into activity by their
decisions resulting from the changes in a situation.
The most common differences between Perceiving
and Judging types are shown below:
142
143
Cont
Researchers like Lawrence, McCaulley and Myers
have investigated the relationship of Karl Jungs

theory of individuals preferences/personality type
and their approach to problem solving and decisionmaking. Their findings are summarized and
presented in the manual. Please refer in to it.
Table also lists important aspects of personality when
considering attention to individual differences during
problem solving. Each aspect of personality has a
different orientation to problem solving, different
criteria for judging the effectiveness of the process
and different associated strengths.
144
145
146
1.8.1.4 Personality Types & Problem-Solving Techniques

A
variety of problem-solving techniques has been

identified to accommodate individual preferences.
Some of these techniques are oriented more to
individuals who are more structured, more rational and
analytical, and more goal-oriented in their approach to
problem-solving.
Other techniques are more suited to individuals who
demonstrate a preference for an approach that is more
holistic and parallel, more emotional and intuitive, more
creative, more visual, and more tactual/kinesthetic.
It is important that techniques from both categories
be selected and used in the problem-solving process.
147
Cont
a) Brainstorming:
An attempt to spontaneously generate as many ideas
on a subject as possible;
ideas are not criticized during the brainstorming
process;
participants are encouraged to form new ideas from
ideas already stated.
b) Imaging/Visualization:
It is producing mental pictures of the total problem or
specific parts of the problem.
c) Incubation:
It is putting aside the problem and doing something else
to allow the mind to unconsciously consider the problem
148
Cont
d) Outcome Psychodrama:
It is enacting/passing a scenario of alternatives or
solutions through role playing.
e) Outrageous Provocation:
It is making a statement that is known to be incorrect
(e.g., the brain is made of charcoal) and then
considering it; used as a bridge to a new idea.
f) Overload:
It is considering a large number of facts and details until the
logic part of the brain becomes overwhelmed and
begins looking for patterns.
It can also be generated by immersion in aesthetic/visual
experiences, sensitivity training or similar experiences.
149
Cont
g) Random Word Technique:

It is selecting a word randomly from the dictionary
and juxtaposing/putting it together with/compare and
contrast it with problem statement, then brainstorming
about possible relationships
h) Relaxation:
It is systematically relaxing all muscles while
repeating a personally meaningful focus word or phrase.
i) Synthesizing:
It is combining parts or elements into a new and
original pattern.
150
Cont
j) Taking Anothers Perspective:

It is deliberately taking another persons point of
view.
k) Value Clarification:
It is using techniques such as role playing,
simulations, self analysis exercises, and structured
controversy to gain a greater understanding of
attitudes and beliefs that individuals hold important.
Thinking loud
Following is a table summarizing the personality
types, orientations and problem solving techniques:
151
152
1.8.2 Decision Making Skills and Techniques

1.8.2.2 Definition
A decision is a choice
made from two or more
alternatives.
Decision Making is defined as:
The cognitive process of reaching a decision.
A
position or opinion or judgment reached
after
consideration
Choosing between alternative courses of action using
cognitive processes - memory, thinking, evaluation, etc
The process of mapping the likely consequences of
decisions, working out the importance of individual
factors, and choosing the best course of action to take.
significant part of decision making skills is in

knowing
and
practicing
good decision
making
techniques.
153
Cont
The decision-making process is defined as a set of
steps consisting of identification, analysis of problems,

selection and implementation of alternative solutions as
well as evaluation of the effectiveness of the decision.
1.8.2.3 The nature of managerial decision making
Decision makers face three types of problems.
A crisis problem is a serious difficulty requiring
immediate action.
A non-crisis problem is an issue that requires
resolution, but does not simultaneously have the
importance and immediacy characteristics of crises.
154
Cont
An opportunity problem is a situation that
offers a strong potential for significant

organizational gain if appropriate actions are
taken.
Opportunities
involve ideas that could be

sued/indicated , rather than difficulties that must
be resolved.
Non-innovative managers tend to focus on
problems rather than upon opportunities.
155
1.8.2.4 Decision-Making Conditions

Decision-making situations differ according to the
types of problems that must be handled.

Decision can be made under conditions of certainty,
uncertainty and risk.
Certainty is a situation in which a manager can make
accurate decisions because all outcomes are known.
Few managerial decisions are made under the
condition of certainty.
Uncertainty is a situation in which the decision
maker is not certain and cannot even make
reasonable probability estimates concerning outcomes
of alternatives.
156
Cont
It is a condition in which the decision maker chooses a
course of action without complete knowledge of the

consequences that will follow implementation.
In such a situation, the choice of alternative is influenced
by the limited amount of information available to the
decision maker and the psychological orientation of the
decision maker.
Risk is the possibility that a chosen action could lead to
losses rather than the intended results.
Uncertainty is seen as the reason why situation is risky.
A rapidly changing environment is a major cause of
uncertainty.
157
Cont
1) An optimistic manager will follow a maximax
choice, maximizing the maximum possible payoff.

2) A pessimistic manager will pursue a maximin
choice, maximizing the minimum possible payoff.
3) The manager who desires to minimize the
maximum regret will opt for a minimax choice.
158
1.8.2.5 General Steps in an Effective Decision-Making

Process
1. The first step is to identify the organizational problem,

i.e., discrepancies between a current state or condition
and what is desired.
The scanning state involves monitoring the work
situation for changing circumstances that may signal
the emergence of a problem.
The categorization stage entails attempting to
understand and verify signs that there is some type of
discrepancy between a current state and what is
desired.
The diagnosis stage involves gathering additional
information and specifying both the nature and the
causes of the problem.
159
Cont
2
The generation of alternative solutions step is
facilitated by
using the four principles associated with brainstorming.
Dont criticize ideas while generating possible solutions
Freewheel, i.e., offer even seemingly wild and
outrageous ideas in an effort to trigger more usable ideas
from others.
Offer as many ideas as possible to increase the
probability of coming up with an effective solution.
Combine and improve on ideas that have been offered.
160
Cont
The choice of an alternative step comes only after the
alternatives are evaluated systematically according to

six general criteria:
Feasibility: extent the accomplishment of alternative
Quality; extent to which an alternative solves the problem.
Acceptability is the degree of effect by the implementation of the
alternative are willing to support it.

Reversibility is the extent to which the alternative can be
reversed, if at all.
The ethics criterion refers to the extent to which an alternative is
compatible with the social responsibilities of the organization and
with ethical standards.
Finally, the implementing and monitoring the chosen
solution: must be planned to avoid failure of the entire

effort.
161
1.8.2.6 Basis/methods of Decision Making

Managers can make decisions on the basis of
rationality, non-rationality, or intuition. Accordingly,

there are three bases for decision making:
Rational decision making
Non-rational decision making
Intuitive decision making
162
1.8.2.6.1 Rational decision making.

Managerial decision making is assumed to be rational
that is, making choices that are consistent and valuemaximizing within specified constraints.
A rational manager would be completely logical and
objective.
According to the rational model of decision making,
managers engage in completely rational decision
processes,
make optimal decisions,
possess and understand all information relevant to their
decisions
Rational decision making assumes that the manager is
making decisions in the best interests of the organization,
not in his/her own interests.
163
Cont
The assumptions of rationality can be met if the
manager is faced with a simple problem in which

(1) goals are clear and alternatives limited,
(2) time pressures are minimal and the cost of
finding and evaluating alternatives is low,
(3) the organizational culture supports innovation
and risk taking, and
(4) outcomes are concrete and measurable.
164
Steps in decisionmaking by Rational

Step
1:Identification of
purpose of your decision.
the
problem
and
A problem is defined as a discrepancy between an existing
and a desired state of affairs. Some cautions about problem

identification include the following:
Make sure its a problem and not just a symptom of a problem.
Problem identification is subjective.
Before a problem can be determined, a manager must be
aware of any discrepancies.
Discrepancies can be found by comparing current results with
some standard.
Pressure must be exerted on the manager to correct the
discrepancy.
165
Cont
Step 2: Gather Information
This helps to gather the reasons that causes the problem
and factors that the problem involve.

Step 3: Setting the decision criteria and allocating
weights to the criteria .
Decision criteria are criteria that define what is
relevant and important in making a decision.
The criteria identified are not all equally important, so
weight must be assigned in order to give them correct
priority in the decision.
This provides a response to the question What standards
and judgment criteria should the solution meet?
166
Cont
Step 5: Analyzing alternatives.
Each of the alternatives must now be critically
analyzed.
Each alternative is evaluated by appraising it against
the criteria.
Evaluate
each
choice
in
terms
of
its
consequences.
Use
your standards and judgment criteria to
determine the cons and pros of each alternative
167
Cont
Step 6: Selection of best alternative.
The act of selecting the best alternative from among
those identified and assessed is critical.

If criteria weights have been used, the decision
maker simply selects the alternative with the highest
score from Step 5.
In general this is much easier after we go through the
above preparation steps
168
Cont
Step
7: Choosing a course of action and

implementing the alternative.
The chosen alternative must be implemented.
Implementation is conveying a decision to those
affected by it and getting their commitment to it.
In this step we need to put the decision into action.
Thus we first need to transform the decision into
specific plan of action steps and then execute our
plan.
169
Cont
Step 8: Evaluating the effectiveness of the
decision.
This step refers to assessing the result of the decision
to see whether or not the problem has been resolved.
In general in this step we need to evaluate the
outcome of our decision and action steps.
What
lessons can be learnt? This is an important
step for further development of
our decision
making skills and judgment.
170
1.8.2.6.2 Non-Rational Decision Making : Non-rational

model
The non-rational models of managerial decision
making suggests that information-gathering and

processing limitations make it difficult for managers
to make optimal decisions.
It includes the following models.
1. The Satisficing Model,
2. The Incremental Model
3. The Garbage-Can Model
171
Cont
1.8.2.6. 3. Intuitive decision making.
Managers also regularly use their intuition.
Intuitive decision making is a subconscious process
of making decisions on the basis of experience and

accumulated judgment.
Although intuitive decision making will not replace
the rational decision-making process, it does play an
important role in managerial decision making.
172
1.8.2.7. Types of Problems and Decisions

Managers encounter different types of problems and
use different types of decisions to resolve them.

Problems can be structured problems or unstructured
problems
Decisions can be programmed decisions or nonprogrammed decisions.
Structured problems are straightforward, familiar,
and easily defined.
In dealing with structured problems, a manager may
use a programmed decision,
Programmed decision is a repetitive decision that
can be handled by a routine approach.
173
Cont
Managers rely on three types of programmed decisions:
A procedure is a series of interrelated sequential steps
that can be used to respond to a structured problem.

A rule is an explicit statement that tells managers
what they can or cannot do.
A policy is a guideline for making decisions.
Unstructured problems are problems that are new or
unusual and for which information is ambiguous or
incomplete.
These
problems
are
best
handled
by
a
nonprogrammed decision that is a unique decision
that requires a custom made solution.
174
Cont
Part II: HUMAN RELATION

SKILLS
175
Cont
Human relations and interpersonal communication skills
are essential to working effectively in an organization.

Personality conflicts or communication interference causes
friction between people, which can drastically reduce
productivity.
The term human relations means interactions among
people .
The goal of human relations is to create a winwin
situation
Human relations cover all types of interactions among
people including conflics, cooperative effort and group
relationships.
A winwin situation occurs when the organization and
the employees get what they want.
176
2.2 Communication
In the biblical story of the Tower of Babel, the people
of the world come together to build a tower that

would reach heaven.
In a single stroke, their efforts came to naught
because
they
were
besieged
by
befuddled
communication,
resulting
in
breakdown
of
coordination.
Intended message is frequently
mis - communicated,
misunderstood, mis-quoted or
even missed altogether because
of ineffective interpersonal
communication skills.
177
Cont
Communication is the imparting or interchange of
thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing,

or signs.
The ability to effectively communicate with other
people is an important skill.
Through
communication,
people
reach
some
understanding of each other, learn to like each other,
influence one another, build trust, and learn more
about themselves and how people perceive them.
Communication is a significant part of a managers job.
In todays team-oriented workplace, the development
of good interpersonal communication skills is an
important key to success
178
Cont
Through effective communication, a manager can
mobilize the employees behind an organizations

vision and inspire a conscious and concerted team
effort to attain the vision.
2.2.1
Classification
of
communication
2.2.1.1
Intrapersonal Communication
2.2.1.2 Interpersonal Communication
2.2.1.3 Small Group Communication
2.2.1.4 Public Communication or Public Speaking
2.2.1.5 Mass Communication
2.2.1.6 Non-Verbal Communication
179
2.2.1.1 Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal
communication: people talk to

themselves, communication takes place within the
brain.
It embraces their thoughts,
experiences
and
perceptions during a communication event.
Behavioral
responses
on
all
their levels of
communication essentially begin on intrapersonal
level.
On this level, the individual forms personal rules and
patterns of communication.
180
Cont
Intrapersonal communication encompasses:
Sense-making e.g. interpreting maps, texts, signs,
and symbols
Interpreting non-verbal communication e.g. gestures,
eye contact
Communication between body parts; e.g.
My
stomach is telling me its time for lunch.
Day-dreaming
Nocturnal dreaming and
Many others...
181
2.2.1.2 Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal
communication
refers
to
communication between two or more individuals.
It involves face-to-face communication
It can occur in both a one-on-one and a group
setting.
Its type may vary from verbal to non-verbal and from
situation to situation.
Gestures such as eye contact, body movement,
and
hand
gestures
are
also
part
of
interpersonal communication.
The most common functions
of interpersonal communication
are listening, talking and
conflict resolution.
182
2.2.1.3 Small Group Communication

Small
group communication is an interaction

process that occurs among three or more people
interacting in an attempt to achieve commonly
recognized goals either face-to-face or through
mediated/faciletated forms.
This is sometimes included in the interpersonal level
the most obvious difference is the number of
persons involved in the process.
The small group may be a family of
three talking at supper, or a meeting
of an organization with just a
few members.
183
2.2.1.4 Public Communication or Public

Speaking
The speaker sends messages to an audience, which is
not identified as individuals. Unlike the previous levels,
the speaker is doing most, if not all, of the talking.
2.2.1.5 Mass Communication
Mass communication occurs when a small number
of people send messages to a large anonymous
and
usually
heterogeneous audience using
specialized communication media.
It represents the creation and sending of a
homogeneous message to a large heterogeneous
audience through the media.
184
Cont
2.2.1.6 Non-Verbal Communication
In
non-verbal
communication,
people
send
messages to each other without talking.
They communicate through facial expressions,
head positions, arm and hand movements, body
posture, and positioning of legs and feet.
185
2.2.2 Methods of Communication

Communication occurs in an organization in the
context of people trying to fulfill one or several of the

following six needs:
To feel respected
To give or get information
To be empathically understood and respected
To cause change of action
To create excitement and reduce boredom
To avoid something unpleasant, like silence or
confrontation
The methods used by them to fulfill those needs
include listening, speaking, reading and writing.

186
2.2.3 Communication Styles

Every time a manager speaks, s/he chooses and
uses one of four basic communication styles:

assertive,
aggressive,
passive
and
passiveaggressive.
1. Passive Style:
Passive communication is based on compliance and
hopes to avoid confrontation at all costs.
In this mode, people do not talk much, question
even less, and actually do very little.
They usually have a low
sense of self-esteem, and have
a difficult time recognizing their
own needs and knowing how
to meet them more appropriately.
187
Cont
They
internalize discomfort rather than risk,

upsetting others.
This style tends to result in a lose-win situation, and
results
in
feelings
of
victimization,
resentment/betterness, and a loss of a sense of control.
2. Aggressive Style:
Aggressive communication always involves manipulation.
Managers adopting the aggressive style create a win-lose
situation.
They use intimidation and control to get their needs met,
and they are disrespectful and hurtful to others in
communications.
188
Cont
They have the underlying beliefs that power and
control are the only way to get needs met.

3. Passive - Aggressive Style:
It is a combination of passive-aggressive styles,
It
avoids
direct confrontation (passive),
but
attempts
to
get
even
through
manipulation(aggressive).
The passive aggressive people try
to
use
procrastination,
forgetfulness,
and
intentional
inefficiency rather that being direct in their
communications with others.
189
Cont
4. Assertive Style:
It is the most effective
and
healthiest
form
of
communication
Its how people naturally express themselves when their
self-esteem /self respect is intact, giving them the
confidence to communicate without games and
manipulation.
The assertive people are direct with the goal of creating a
win-win situation.
They operate from the belief that each person is
responsible for solving his or her own problems, and
neither party in communication has to justify
themselves to each other. They take responsibility for their
own decisions and actions.
190
Table of various interpersonal communication styles against

selected important issues
191
Cont
192
2.2.4 Communication Barriers

Sender barrier. The sender may send a message to
an audience that is not interested in the content of

the message.
Encoding barrier. The sender uses a vocabulary
that is too technical for the audience.
Communication channel barrier.
The
sender selects a communication channel that

is too lean/tiny/wiry to provide the richness of
information receivers need to decode the message.
For example, a written memo is inadequate for
explaining a change in the employee retirement
plan.
193
Cont
Receiver barrier. The receiver is too busy focusing
on other things to be able to accurately listen to and

understand the verbal or nonverbal content of the
message.
Feedback
barrier. The organization has few
formal
communication channels with feedback loops/circles
to give lower echelon/rank employees the opportunity
to communicate their true feelings about policies.
Noise barrier. The receiver does not understand how to
use time-saving feature of e-mail and voice mail,
resulting in message overload and unacceptable delays
in responding to message of customer and coworker.
194
Cont
Perception barriers.
Perception barriers occur when two individual
experiences the same message differently because
their mental images of the message are not identical.
A receiver will fit a message into an existing pattern
of experiences to make sense out of it.
Sometimes the message becomes distorted during
this sense making process.
One
type
of
perception
barrier
is selective perception, whereby the receiver focuses
on the parts of the message that are most relevant to
his or her interests and ignores other parts that are
viewed as not relevant.
195
2.3 Conflict Management

Conflict may be defined as a struggle or contest
between people with opposing needs, ideas, beliefs,

values, or goals.
Conflict on team work is inevitable; however, the
results of conflict are not predetermined.
Conflict might escalate and lead to nonproductive
results, or conflict can be beneficially resolved and
lead to quality final products.
Therefore, learning to manage conflict is integral
to a high performance team.
196
Cont
Conflict
management is the principle that all

conflicts cannot necessarily be resolved, but learning
how to manage conflicts can decrease the odds of
nonproductive escalation.
Conflict management involves acquiring skills related
to conflict resolution, self-awareness about conflict
modes,
conflict
communication
skills,
and
establishing a structure for management of conflict in
your environment.
2.3.2 Responding to Conflict
Physiologically we respond to conflict in one of two ways
we want to get away from the conflict (flee) or we
are ready to take on anyone who comes our way.
197
Cont
Whether we feel like we want to fight or flee when a
conflict arises, we can deliberately choose a conflict

mode
By consciously choosing a conflict mode instead of to
conflict, we are more likely to productively contribute
to solving the problem at hand.
Below are five conflict response modes that can be
used in conflict.
1. Competing
2. Avoiding
3. Accommodating
4. Compromising
5. Collaborating
198
Competing
The competing conflict mode is high assertiveness
and low cooperation.

Competing mode is appropriate are when quick
action needs to be taken, when unpopular decisions
need to be made, when vital issues must be handled,
or when one is protecting self-interests.
Competing Skills:
Arguing or debating
Using rank or influence
Asserting your opinions and feelings
Standing your ground
Stating your position clearly
199
2. Avoiding
The
avoiding mode is low assertiveness and low

cooperation.
Many times people will avoid conflicts out of fear of
engaging in a conflict or because they do not
have confidence in their conflict management skills.
Times when the avoiding mode is appropriate are when
you have issues of low importance, to reduce tensions, to
buy some time, or when you are in a position of lower
power.
Avoiding Skills:
Ability to withdraw
Ability to sidestep issues
Ability to leave things unresolved
Sense of timing
200
3. Accommodating
The
accommodating mode is low assertiveness

and high cooperation.
Times when
the
accommodating
mode
is
appropriate are to show reasonableness, develop
performance, create good will, or keep peace.
Some people use the accommodating mode when
the issue or outcome is of low importance to them.
Accommodating Skills:
Forgetting your desires

Selflessness
Ability to yield
Obeying orders
201
4. Compromising
The compromising mode is moderate assertiveness and
moderate cooperation.
Some people define compromise as giving up more than
you want, while others see compromise as both parties
winning.
Times when the compromising mode is appropriate are
when you are dealing with issues of moderate
importance,
when you have equal power status,
when you have a strong commitment for resolution.
Compromising mode can also be used as a temporary
solution when there are time constraints.
202
Cont
Compromising Skills:
Negotiating
Finding a middle ground
Assessing value
Making concessions
203
5. Collaborating
The
collaborating mode is high assertiveness

and high cooperation.
Collaboration has been described as putting an idea
on top of an idea on top of an ideain order to
achieve the best solution to a conflict.
The best solution is defined as a creative solution to
the conflict that would not have been generated
by a single individual.
With such a positive outcome for collaboration,
some
people will profess that the collaboration mode is
always the best conflict mode to use.
204
Cont
However, collaborating takes a great deal
of time
and energy.
Therefore, the collaborating mode should be used
when the conflict warrants the time and energy.
Times when the collaborative mode is appropriate are
when the conflict is important to the people
who are constructing an integrative solution,
when the issues are too important to compromise,
when merging
perspectives,
when gaining commitment,
when improving relationships, or
when learning.
205
Cont
Collaboration Skills:
Active listening
Non - threatening confrontation
Identifying concerns
Analyzing input
2.3.3 Factors affecting conflict handling
modes
2.3.4 Creating an Individual Conflict
Management Plan
206
Cont
2.4 Team Work

Part III LEADERSHIP
207
Cont
Part IV. ETHICS

A man's ethical behavior should be based effectually
on sympathy, education, and social ties; no religious
basis is necessary. Man would indeed be in a poor way
if he had to be restrained by fear of punishment and
hope of reward after death. Albert Einstein
208
4.1 Introduction
Ethics is the theory of morality where morality is the
quality of being in accord with what is right and wrong.

A moral person knows why decisions have been taken and
can explain his actions.
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch
of philosophy that addresses questions about morality
that is, concepts such as good and evil,
right and wrong, virtue and vice/evil, justice and crime,
etc.
Ethics is the word that refers to morals, values, and
beliefs of the individuals, family or the society.
It is the discipline within philosophy concerned with right
and wrong human actions.
209
4.2 Key Words and Concepts

Morals
Morals are the welfare principles enunciated/articulated
by the wise people, based on their experience and

wisdom.
They were edited, changed or modified or evolved to
suit the geography of the region, rulers (dynasty),
and in accordance with development of knowledge in
science and technology and with time.
Morality is concerned with principles and practices of
morals such as: (a) what ought or ought not to be done in
a given situation? (b) What is right or wrong about the
handling of a situation? and, (c) What is good or bad
about the people, policies, and ideals involved?
210
Cont
As against morals and ethics, laws are norms,
formally approved by state, power or national or

international political bodies.
Breaking the norms is called crime, and invites
specific punishment.
Values
Values are our guidelines for our successour
paradigm/guide about what is acceptable.
Personal values are defined as: Emotional beliefs
in principles regarded as particularly favorable or
important for the individual.
211
Cont
Our values associate emotions to our experiences
and guide our choices, decisions and actions.

Values are the scales we use to weigh our choices
for our actions, whether to move towards or away
from something.
Not all values have the same weight or priority.
Some are more important than others and must
be satisfied before others can be addressed.
212
Integrity
Integrity is defined as the unity of thought, word
and deed (honesty) and open mindedness.

It includes the capacity to communicate the factual
information so that others can make well-informed
decisions.
It yields the persons peace of mind, and hence
adds
strength
and consistency in
character,
decisions, and actions.
This paves way to ones success.
It
is one of the self-direction virtues. It
enthuse/stimulate people not only to execute a
job well but to achieve excellence in performance.
213
Work Ethics
Work ethics is defined as a set of attitudes concerned
with the value of work, which forms the motivational

orientation.
The work ethics is aimed at ensuring
the economy (get job, create wealth, earn salary),
productivity (wealth, profit),
safety (in workplace),
health and hygiene (working conditions),
privacy (raise family),
security (permanence against contractual, pension, and
retirement benefits),
cultural
and social development (leisure, hobby, and
happiness),
welfare (social work),
environment
(anti-pollution activities), and
offer opportunities for all, according to their abilities, but without
discrimination.
214
Service learning
Service
learning refers to learning the service

policies, procedures, norms, and conditions, other
than the technical trade practices.
Service learning includes the characteristics of the
work, basic requirements, security of the job,
and awareness of the procedures, while taking
decisions and actions.
It helps the individuals to interact ethically with
colleagues, to effectively coordinate with other
departments, to interact cordially with suppliers as
well as the customers, and to maintain all these
friendly interactions.
215
Virtues
Virtues are positive and preferred values.
Virtues are desirable attitudes or character traits,
motives and emotions that enable us to be successful

and to act in ways that develop our highest
potential.
They energize and enable us to pursue the ideals
that we have adopted.
Examples of virtues :
Honesty,
courage,
compassion, generosity, fidelity/loyality, integrity,
fairness, transparency, self-control, and prudence/farsightdness.
216
Respect for Others

This is a basic requirement for nurturing friendship,
team work, and for the synergy it promotes and

sustains.
The principles enunciated in this regard are:
Recognize and accept the existence of other persons
Respect others ideas (decisions), words, and labor
(actions).
One need not accept or approve or award them, but shall listen to
them first.
Appreciate colleagues and subordinates on their positive actions.
Criticize constructively and encourage them, as they are bound to
improve
their
performance,
by
learning properly and by putting more efforts.
217
Cont
Show goodwill to others.
Love others.
Allow others to grow.
Basically, the goodwill reflects on the originator and
multiplies
itself
on
everybody.
This
will
facilitate focus, coherence, and strength to achieve
the goals.
218
Cont
Caring
Caring is feeling for others.
It is a process which exhibits the interest in, and
support for, the welfare of others with fairness,

impartiality and justice in all activities, among the
employees, in the context of professional ethics.
It includes showing respect to the feelings of others,
and also respecting and preserving the interests of all
others concerned.
219
Sharing
Sharing is a process that describes the transfer of
knowledge (teaching, learning, and information),

experience (training),
commodities (material
possession) and facilities with others.
The transfer should be genuine, legal, positive,
voluntary, and without any expectation in return.
Primarily, caring influences sharing.
Honesty
Honesty is a virtue, and it is exhibited in two aspects
namely,
(a) Truthfulness
(b) Trustworthiness.
220
Cont
Courage
Courage is the tendency to accept and face risks and
difficult tasks in rational ways.
Self-confidence is the basic requirement to nurture
courage.
Valuing Time
Time is rare resource.
Once it is spent, it is lost for ever.
It can not be either stored or recovered. Hence, time
is the most perishable and most valuable resource too.
This resource is continuously spent, whether any
decision or action is taken or not.
221
Cont
Cooperation
It is a team-spirit present with every individual
engaged in engineering.
Cooperation is activity between two persons or
sectors that aims at integration of operations
(synergy), while not sacrificing the autonomy of either
party.
Further, working together ensures, coherence, i.e.,
blending of different skills required, towards common
goals.
222
Cont
Commitment
Commitment
means alignment to goals and

adherence to ethical principles during the activities.
First of all, one must believe in ones action
performed
and
the
expected
end
results
(confidence). It means one should have the
conviction without an iota/bit/grain of doubt that one
will succeed.
It is the driving force to realize success.
223
Empathy
Empathy is social radar.
Sensing what others feel about, without their open
talk, is the essence of empathy.

It is the ability to put ones self into the
psychological frame or reference or point of view of
another, to know what the other person feels
Empathy begins with showing concern, and then
obtaining and understanding the feelings of others,
from others point of view.
It includes understanding of others background
such as parentage, physical and mental state,
economic situation, and association. This is an
essential ingredient for good human relations and
transactions.
224
Self-Confidence
Self-confidence refers to
ones own capabilities,
values, and goals.

Self-confident people are usually
positive thinking,
flexible and willing to change,
respect
others so much as they respect
themselves.
Self-confidence is positive attitude, wherein the
individual has some positive and realistic view of
himself, with respect to the situations in which
one gets involved
225
Cont
People with self-confidence
exhibit courage to get into action
unshakable faith in their abilities, whatever may
be their positions.
not
influenced
by
threats
challenges and
are prepared to face any challenge
or
226

One of the most practical decision making
techniques can be summarized in those simple
decision making steps

1. Identify the purpose of your decision. What
is exactly the problem to be
solved? Why it should be solved?
2. Gather information. What factors does the
problem involve?
3. Identify the principles to judge the
alternatives. What standards and
judgment criteria should the solution meet?
227

4.
Brainstorm and list different possible

choices. Generate ideas for
possible solutions. See more on extending your
options for your decisions
on my brainstorming tips page.
5. Evaluate each choice in terms of its
consequences. Use your
standards and judgment criteria to determine the
cons and pros of each
alternative.
.
228

6.
Determine the best alternative. This is much

easier after you go through
the above preparation steps.
7. Put the decision into action. Transform
your decision into specific plan
of action steps. Execute your plan.
8. Evaluate the outcome of your decision
and action steps. What
lessons can be learnt? This is an important step for
further development of
your decision making skills and judgment.
229

Some of the techniques used in decision making are
as
follows:
Brainstorming
Ideas writing
Decision trees
Ishikawa fishbone diagrams
Force field analysis
230

Problem Solving skills are also called as
Design skills. A manager

should know how to identify a problem. He should
also possess an ability
problem. This requires
intelligence, experience and up-to-date knowledge
of the latest
developments.
231


of the latest
developments.
232


of the latest
developments.
233


of the latest
developments.
234


of the latest
developments.
235


of the latest
developments.
236


of the latest
developments.
237


of the latest
developments.
238


of the latest
developments.
239


of the latest
developments.
240


of the latest
developments.
241


of the latest
developments.
242


of the latest
developments.
243


of the latest
developments.
244


of the latest
developments.
245


of the latest
developments.
246


of the latest
developments.
247


of the latest
developments.
248


of the latest
developments.
249


of the latest
developments.
250


of the latest
developments.
251


of the latest
developments.
252


of the latest
developments.
253


of the latest
developments.
254

Sof Skills Note

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Sof Skills Note

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

ESSENTIAL SOFT

1.1 The Evolution of Management

Industrial Revolution: structure of industry became

Management is a vital aspect of the economic life of

man, which is an organized group activity.

There are many definitions of management .

A comprehensive definition of Management:

resources into a dynamic organization units that

through the efforts of other people in order to

1.4 Managers: 1.4.1 Definition

other people by coordinating their work activities in

1.4.2 Managerial Job/Roles in an Organization

associated with a particular office or position.

and other duties that are ceremonial and symbolic in

2. Informational roles involve receiving, collecting,

Continued: THE SEVENTEEN MANAGERIAL ROLES

Other researchers further extended the study made

by Prof. H Mintzberg and found out other roles played

1.4.3 Levels of Management

1.4.3 Levels of Management

level in the hierarchy of the organization.

Titles often include the term, supervisor.

The jobs of first-line managers are likely to change

toward a greater emphasis on dealing with internal

managers manage the work of first-line

are ultimately responsible for the entire

1.4.4 Resources used by Managers

1.4.5 Mistakes managers make

1.5 Necessity of management

Management is an essential activity of all

The importance of studying management in todays

dynamic global environment can be explained by

is needed in all types and sizes of organizations,

ambitions, and experiences of a diverse group of

1.6 Functions of Management

is often called the primary management

are reviewed as under.

"Management planning involves the development of

"Planning is deciding in advance what is to be done.

"Planning is an intellectual process, the conscious

1.6.1.3 The Nature and Purpose of Planning

The essential nature of planning can be defined

by dividing it into four major aspects.

1.6.1.4 Types of Plans

specificity, and frequency of use.

plans (long-term plans) are plans that apply to

On the basis of Time frame

leave no room for interpretation.

On the basis of Frequency

to meet the needs of a unique situation.

1.6.1.5 Planning and Performance

always outperform those that do not plan.

1.6.1.6 Characteristics of planning

1.6.1.9 Developing General Planning Skills

organization is, wants to be and where it wants go.

o Through external analysis influential factors that affect the

organization performance from external environment such

strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats

which organization/enterprise mission is put into

to accomplish the mission/goal. It is an end towards which

1.1.1.2 Developing Action Plans

by the wayside because managers fail to develop

achieving them. Determine the sources, amount

1.1.1.3 Engaging in Proactive Planning