Household and

neibourghood
Sanitation
Infrastructures:
Excreta,
wastewater disposal
in developing
countries
Doulaye Kon Eawag/Sandec

Structure of the presentation

Objectives of a sanitation systems

What are we talking about?

Wastewater sources and their
characteristics
Pathways of domestic wastewater
Household sanitation management
infrastructures
Realistic holistic sanitation systems
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Tasks of sanitation systems

Prevent disease guarantee effective barriers against
sanitation related diseases
Protect the environment prevent pollution, return
nutrients to the soil, and conserve water.
Be simple - operation of the system must be feasible using
locally available resources (human and material). Where
technical skills are limited, simple technologies should be
preferred.
Be affordable total costs (incl. capital, operation,
maintenance costs) must be within the users ability to pay.
Be culturally acceptable it should fit local customs,
beliefs, and desires.
Work for everyone it should address the needs of
children and adults, of women and men.

What are we talking about?

Blackwater
toilet wastewater
(faeces and urine with or without flushing water)

Greywater
domestic wastewater form kitchen, bath, shower (excluding
faeces and urine)

Brownwater Blackwater without urine

Yellowwater Urine

Faecal sludge
Sludge accumulating in "on-site sanitation systems"
(Latrines, Septic tanks, etc.)
4

The human waste system

~ 2 billion (2004)
~ 3 billion (2025)

The Path of Excreta and

Greywater in Urban Areas
sewered sanitation
(black and greywater)

on-site sanitation
(excreta, black and greywater)

Septic tanks

Greywater
Wastewater treatment
plant (WWTP)

Small-bore sewerage for effluent

of interceptor or septic tanks

Latrines

Effluent to soakage
or drains

(trad., VIP, PF,

double-pit, nomix, ...)

Septage

Liquid to discharge
into receiving waters or to cotreatment in WWTP

Effluent to agricultural use or

discharged into receiving
waters

FS treatment
Plant (FSTP)
Faecal sludgeFS
Biosolids to agriculture for
soil conditioning and
fertilization

Products from double-pit

and no-mix latrines might
be used on-site
Eawag / Sandec 2004

Characteristics of the different wastewater sources

Total

Greywater

Urine

Faeces

25000 -100000

25000100000

500

50

2-4 kg/cap*a

5%

85%

10%

Phosphorous

0.3-0.8 kg/cap*a

10%**

60%

30%

Potassium

1-4-2.0 kg/cap*a

34%

54%

12%

30kg/cap*a

41%

12%

47%

104-106 /
100ml

0*

107-109 /
100ml

Volume
[l/cap*a]
Nutrients
Nitrogen

COD
Faecal
coliforms

* healthy people
** can be as high as 50%, depending on washing and dish-washing powder used
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Criteria influencing the selection of sanitation systems

Economic, institutional and other aspects

regulations and standards (including

enforcement)
costs for construction, O&M
willingness to pay (initial and monthly
payments)
self-help potential and initiative of local
people and organizations
local entrepreneurs, consultants,
construction companies, ...
Existing system!

Classification of Excreta and wastewater management

technologies

- Cesspit trucks

Partially sewered cities

Business centre of large cities with high water
consumption rate
Lack of treatment sites and wastewater
treatment plants
Discharge of wastewater into natural water
bodies and open canals

Cities without sewers

Represent more than 90% of cities in developing
countries
Are very heterogeneous in urban infrastructure
Often lack financial and human resources for
sanitation development and upgrading

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Decentralised sanitation systems

are often more suitable why?
Existing systems are decentralised (e.g. latrines)
Treatment and reuse can be tailored to the specific waste
stream (e.g. urine, faeces, greywater etc.)
Decentralised systems are easier to plan and implement (different
independent areas with specific needs and characteristics)
Capital investments are generally less than for centralised
systems (reduced investments for trunk sewers and pumping
stations, lower O&M costs)
Capacity expansion and thus capital requirements can track
demand much more closely (incremental approach)
No reason to impose a one size fits all approach
Different strategies can be employed in various parts of the
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service area.

The human waste system

~ 2 billion (2004)
~ 3 billion (2025)

The Path of Excreta and

Greywater in Urban Areas
sewered sanitation
(black and greywater)

on-site sanitation
(excreta, black and greywater)

Septic tanks

Greywater
Wastewater treatment
plant (WWTP)

Small-bore sewerage for effluent

of interceptor or septic tanks

Latrines

Effluent to soakage
or drains

(trad., VIP, PF,

double-pit, nomix, ...)

Septage

Liquid to discharge
into receiving waters or to cotreatment in WWTP

Effluent to agricultural use or

discharged into receiving
waters

FS treatment
Plant (FSTP)
Faecal sludgeFS
Biosolids to agriculture for
soil conditioning and
fertilization

Products from double-pit

and no-mix latrines might
be used on-site
Eawag / Sandec 2004

12

On-site dry systems

Simple pit latrine

2 m or more in depth
covered by latrine slab
with or without
superstructure
percolation of liquids into
soil
partial anaerobic
decomposition of solids

+ cheap, easily understood

-

unstable soils ( lining)

not good with high water
table
- hazardous and difficult
emptying (depth > 2 m)
- odor problems, fly breathing
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On-site dry systems

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On-site dry systems

VIP latrine (ventilated improved pit latrine)
Naturally induced ventilation
with screened ventilation pipe
removes odor
prevents escape of flies

+ bad smell and flies reduced

- difficult to construct properly
- more expensive than simple
pit latrine

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On-site dry systems

Groundwater contamination
If contamination potential is high
--> raised pits or vaults
completely over ground
> 2m above highest groundwater
level
less --> at least 20 m to next well.
But: main risk of contamination is
via dug well

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On-site dry systems

Double pit systems and raised pit (vault) systems
Permanent pits
Filling - consolidation
-emptying
dehydration and
hygienisation --> reuse
can be an option with
urine separation
+ treatment included
+ more hygienic emptying
- O&M more complicated
-/+ costs

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On-site systems
Pour flush pits
Flushing of excreta with 2-3
liters
Permanent pits or vaults
Can be combined with double
vaults
+ reduced smell problem with
water seal
- water must be available

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Designing latrines
Site
Distance and position relative to housing: depending on cultural habits
at least 20 m from surface water sources
easily accessible for all users (children, women, old people, disabled)

Construction materials
local availability
stable and durable
esthetic considerations

Superstructure design
depending on cultural habits (open or closed)
protect from rain, stormwater runoff, ...
superstructure = important factor influencing the use (essential that users
are involved in design)

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Designing latrines

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Designing latrines (cont.)

Slabs
concrete, wood, fero-cement or
plastic (local manufacturers?)
keyhole shape most suitable
squat hole covers (not for VIP)

Ventilation pipes
15-20 cm diameter
length of VIP pipe = 0.5m higher
than superstructure
orientation

Pit excavation and lining

top 0.5 m usually lined (pre-cast
concrete, bricks, cement blocks,
etc.)
No movable parts!
21

Designing latrines (cont.)

Round pits are more
suitable to distribute
evenly earth pressure
(natural arching effect)
Hand-washing facilities
must be provided!

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Designing latrines (cont.)

Pit sizing
V = N x S x D / 1000

and

F=NxW/I

V: pit Volume (m3)

N: no. of users
S: sludge accumulation rate (litres/cap year)
D: design life (years)
2-3 years for single pits (where emptying required)
1-2 years for double pits
0.5 -1 year for double pits with urine separation

F: Infiltration area (m2); (water depth = F / pit circumference)

W: Amount of water used for flushing (liters/cap day)
I: Infiltration rates (liters/m2 day)

Sand
Sandy loam
Silt loam
Clay loam
Clay

40
25
20
8
unsuitable

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Designing latrines (cont.)

Sludge accumulation rates
Wastes deposited and conditions
Wastes retained in water where
degradable anal cleaning materials are
used
Wastes retained in water where nondegradable anal cleaning materials are
used
Wastes retained in dry conditions where
degradable anal cleaning materials are
used
Wastes retained in dry conditions where
non-degradable anal cleaning materials
are used

Sludge accumulation rate

"S"
(litres per capita per year)
40

60

60

90

In emergency situations (rapid accumulation) these rates have to be

multiplied by 150-200%

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25

Urine diversion latrines

Faeces and urine are
separated before they
come into contact
Urine is collected in
tanks and is reused as
liquid fertilizer
Faeces are dehydrated
in the chambers and
used as soil conditioner
+ reduced stench problems
+ easier handling of dried
material
+ reduced chamber volume
+ no waste, but fertilizer
- special squatting pan
- 2 separate fractions
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Urine diversion latrines

2 chambers, 0.5-1 m3 each

2 doors, access normally
from outside
1 urine pipe with jerry can,
normally outside
Squatting pan with cover

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Urine diversion latrines

Operation:

Addition of ash: to increase pH

and to reduce moisture
In addition: lime, sawdust, dry
soil,...
Toilet paper separation: Toilet
paper will not decompose in the
chamber (only dehydration
process) separate collection in
a bucket.
If the toilets are well operated
and maintained, no smell
problems will occur.
Vent pipe and
window ensure
a sufficient
aeration
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Urine diversion latrines

Processing chambers:

Always 2 chambers
Above ground level, sealed
Access to the chambers
should be possible from
outside the house
Volume according to
accumulation rate and
number of users;

guide value:
100-150 l/year/user and
chamber
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Emptying urine divertion toilet

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Household / neighbourhood treatment systems

Septic tank
most frequent on-site treatment
unit worldwide
sedimentation tank
settled sludge partially stabilised
by anaerobic digestion
1-3 compartments
Almost no removal of dissolved
and suspended matter
+ simple, little space required (underground)
+ high institutional acceptance
- low treatment efficiency (COD removal approx. 50%)
- O&M often neglected (desludging) or unkown!!
look for national design standards!

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Septic tank design

V=V1 + V2 + V3

V3=F*h
V3: scum layer

h=20-30cm

F: surface of the tank

h: height of the scum layer

V1 and V3 can also be estimated

based on existing figures:
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Household / neighbourhood treatment systems

Anaerobic baffled reactor (baffled septic tank)

Improved septic tank

2 to 3 chambers in series (up to 5)
Intensive contact between resident sludge and fresh influent
Treatment efficiency: 65 to 90% COD removal
HRT = 2-3 days

+ simple, high treatment efficiency, hardly any blockages

+ high removal efficiencies, also for suspended and dissolved solids
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- construction and maintenance more complicated than conventional septic tank

Septic systems

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Household / neighbourhood treatment systems

Anaerobic filter
Used for pre-settled domestic
wastewater with low SS
concentrations (e.g. greywater)
Principle: close contact of
wastewater with active bacterial
mass on filter media
filter material surface: 90 to
300m2 per m3
Treatment efficiency: 70 to 90% COD removal
Volume: 0.5-1.0 m3/cap for domestic wastewater
+ simple and durable if well constructed and wastewater properly pre-treated;
high treatment efficiency; little space requirements
- high construction costs (filter media); blockage of filter possible
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- maintenance costly and difficult

Faecal sludge underestimated problem

e .g . B a n g k o k , M a n ila , A c c r a

e .g . L o n d o n , P a r is , B e r lin

2-2.5 billion urban dwellers on on-site

sanitation !
Number and share growing !

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Types of faecal sludge

Thick and yellow .......

Sludges from unsewered public or
family toilets emptied at weeks
intervals unstable

Thin and black .......

Sludges from septic tanks emptied
at years intervals partially
stable
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