LEVEL OF COMMUNICATION

Human communication takes place at various levels

Extrapersonal
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Organizational
Mass
Cross cultural

Extrapersonal-Communication
Communication between human beings and nonhuman entities is extrapersonal. For example, when your pet
dog comes to you wagging its tail as soon as you return
home from work, it is an example of extrapersonal
communication. A parrot responding to your greeting is
another example. More than any other form, this form of
communication

requires

perfect

coordination

and

understanding between the sender and the receiver as at

least one of them transmits information or responds in sign
language only.

Intrapersonal Communication
This takes place within the individual. We know that the brain is linked to all the
parts of the body by an electrochemical system. For example, when you begin
to feel hot, the information is sent to the brain and you may decide to turn on
the cooler, responding to instructions sent from the brain to the hand. In this
case, the relevant organ is the sender, the electrochemical impulse is the
message, and the brain is the receiver. Next, the brain assumes the role of
sender and sends the feedback that you should switch on the cooler. Then the
process is complete. This kind of communication pertains to thinking, which is
the basis of information processing. Without such internal dialogue, you cannot
proceed to the further levels of communication- interpersonal and
organizational. In fact, while we are communicating with the other party,
internal dialogue with oneself continues concurrently- planning, weighing,
considering, and processing information. You might have noticed that at times
you motivate yourself or consciously resolve to complete a certain task. Selfmotivation, self-determination, and the like take place at the intrapersonal
level.

Interpersonal Communication
Communication at this level refers to the sharing of information
among people. To compare it with other forms of
communication, we need to examine how many people are
involved, how close they are to one another physically, how
many sensory channels are used, and the feedback provided.
Interpersonal communication differs from other forms of
communication in that there are few participants involved, the
interactants are in close physical proximity to each other, there
are many sensory channels used, and feedback is immediate,
Also the roles of sender and receiver keep alternating. This
form of communication is advantageous because direct and
immediate feedback is possible. If a doubt occurs. It can be
instantly clarified. Note that non-verbal communication plays a
major role in the interpretation of a message in this form of
communication due to the proximity of the people involved.

Interpersonal communication can be formal or informal.

For example, your interaction with a sales clerk in a store
is different from that with your friends and family
members; the interaction between the panel members
and the candidate appearing at an interview is different
from the conversation between two candidates waiting
outside. Hence, depending upon the formality of the
situation, interpersonal communication takes on different
styles.
Moreover, most interpersonal communication situations
depend on a variety of factors, such as the psychology of
the two parties involved, the relationship between them,
the situation in which the communication takes place, the
surrounding environment, and finally the cultural context.

Organizational Communication
Communication in an organization takes place at different
hierarchical levels. It is extremely necessary for the sustenance
of any organization. Since a large number of employees are
involved in several different activities, the need to communicate
becomes greater in an organization. With a proper networking
system, communication in an organization is possible even
without direct contact between employees. This kind of
communication can be further divided into:

Internal-operational
All communication that occurs in conducting work within an organization
is classified as internal-operational.
External-operational
The work-related communication that an organization does with people
outside the organization is called external-operational
Personal
All communication in an organization that occurs without purpose as far
as business is concerned is called personal communication.

Mass Communication
For this kind of communication we require a mediator to transmit
information. There are several mass media such as journals,
books, television, and newspapers, which mediate such
communications. Since the messages are for a large audience
that is heterogeneous and anonymous, the approach is
impersonal. Press interviews given by the chairman of a large
firm, advertisements for a particular product or service, and the
like take place through mass media. This type of communication
is more persuasive in nature than any other form of
communication and requires utmost care on the part of the
sender in encoding the message. Oral communication through
mass media requires some equipment, such as microphones,
amplifiers, etc., and the written form needs print or visual media.
The characteristics of this type of communication are:

Large reach
Mass media communications reach audience scattered over a
wide geographical area.
Impersonality
This kind of communication is largely impersonal as the
participants are unknown to each other.
Presence of a gatekeeper
Mass communication needs additional persons, institutions or
organizations to convey the message from sender to receiver.
This gatekeeper or mediator could be a person or an organized
group of persons active in transferring or sending information
from the source to the target audience through a mass medium.
For example, in a newspaper the editor makes choices and
decides which news makes it to the hands of the reader. The
editor is therefore the gatekeeper in the mass communication
process.

THE FLOW OF COMMUNICATON

Information flows in an organization both formally and informally. The term formal
communication refers to communication that follows that official hierarchy and is
required to do ones job. In other words, it flows through formal channels-the main
lines of organizational communication. Internal-operational communication can be
described as formal. In fact, the bulk of communication that a business needs in order
to operate flows through these channels. For example, when a manager instructs a
subordinate on some matter or when an employee brings a problem to a supervisors
attention, the act of communication is formal. Similarly, when two employees interact
to discuss a customers order, there is a formal communication. Information of various
kinds flowing through formal channels, such as policy or procedural changes, orders,
instructions, confidential reports, etc., is classified as formal communication. This type
of communication can flow in various directions-downward, upward, lateral, or
diagonal-as shown in figure1.2.

Managing Director

Manager 2

Manager 2

Director 3

Director 2

Director 1

Manager 3

Manager 1

Manager 2

Horizontal/Lateral

Manager 3

Downward

Diagonal

Figure 1.2. Flow of communication in an organization

Manager 1

Manager 2

Upward

Manager 3

Downward Communication
Downward communication flows from a manager, down the chain of command.
When managers inform, instruct, advise, or request their subordinates, the
communication, flows in a downward pattern. This is generally used to convey
routine information, new policies or procedures, to seek clarification, to ask for an
analysis, etc. Also, superiors send feedback about their subordinates action
through this channel. Such communication increases awareness about the
organization among subordinates and employees and enables managers to
evaluate the performance of their subordinates. Downward communication can
take any form-memos, notices, face to face interactions, or telephone
conversations. However, this should be adequately balanced by an upward flow
of communication.

Upward Communication
When subordinates send reports to inform their superiors or to present their findings and
recommendations, the communication flows upward. This type of communication keeps managers
aware of how employees feel about their jobs, colleagues and the organization in general. Managers
also rely on upward communication for making certain decision or solving some problems which
concern the organization.
The extent of upward communication, especially that which is initiated at the lowest level depends on
the organizational culture. In an open culture without too many hierarchical levels, managers are able
to create a climate of trust and respect, and implement participative decision-making or
empowerment. Here, there will be considerable upward communication. This is mainly because
employees provide the input for managerial decisions. In a highly authoritative environment, where
downward flow dominates, upward communication still takes place but it is limited to the managerial
ranks. Suggestion boxes, employee attitude surveys, grievance procedures, superior-subordinate
decisions (decisions taken for the subordinate by his superior), review reports, statistical analyses etc.
provide restricted information to top management.

Lateral or Horizontal Communication

This form of communication takes place among peer groups or hierarchically equivalent employees.
Such communication is often necessary to facilitate coordination, save time, and bridge the
communication gap among various departments. Occasionally, these lateral relationships are formally
sanctioned. But generally, they are informally created to bypass the formal hierarchical channels and
expedite action.
From the organizations point of view, lateral communication can be either advantageous or
disadvantageous. As compared to vertical (downward or upward) communication, which can at times
impede and delay timely and accurate transfer of information lateral communication can be beneficial.
Nevertheless, they can also create conflicts when formal vertical channels are bypassed by employees
in order to accomplish their goals, or when superiors find out that they had not been consulted before
certain decisions were taken.
Lateral communication enables the sharing of information with a view to apprise the peer group of
activities of a department. The Vice Precedent (Marketing) sending some survey results in the form of
a memo to the Vice President (Production) for further action is an example of lateral communication.
This type of communication is very vital for the growth of an organization as it builds cooperation
among the various branches. In such organizations where work is decentralized, it plays a greater role
because there is a higher probability of communication gaps.

Diagonal or Cross-wise communication

Diagonal or Cross-wise Communication flows in all directions and cuts
across functions and levels in an organization. For example, when a sales
manager communicates directly with the Vice President (Production), who
is not only in a different division, but also at a higher level in the
organization, they are engaged in diagonal communication. Though this
form of communication deviates from the normal chain of command, there
is no doubt that it is quick and efficient.
In some situations, ignoring vertical and horizontal channels expedites
action and prevents other employees from being used merely as conduits
between senders and receivers.
The increased use of e-mail also encourages cross-wise communication.
Any employee can communicate via e-mail with another employee,
regardless of the receivers function or status. Since there is no specific
line of command, diagonal communication is also referred to as cross
wise, radial, or circular communication, depending upon the structure of
the organization. For instance, a managing director could directly call a
supervisor and give instructions.

External Communication
Communication with people outside the company is called external
communication. Supervisors communicate with sources outside the
organization, such as vendors and customers. It leads to better
Sales volume
Public credibility
Operational efficiency
Company profits
It should improve
Overall performance
Public goodwill
Corporate image
Ultimately, it helps to achieve
Organizational goals
Customer satisfaction

Customer

Vendor

Media

Organization

Lawyer

Tax Dept.

Shareholders

Insurance Co.

Importers

External Communication in an organization

CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL

COMMUNICATION
Basically, to communicate is to share information, in its widest sense, with others in an
intelligible, participative form through the medium of words-spoken or written, or body
gestures, or other symbolic signs.
Two basic things stand out here. One, the message is to be both known and understood
by others. Two, communication in its nature is a symbolic act, verbal or non-verbal.
These tow aspects the purpose and nature of communication act as the two determining
influences in this theory and practice of communication in all contexts of speaking or writing.
Here in lies the crucial critical difference between effective and ineffective communication. If
something is communicated and it is not fully understood by the receiver, then
communication has been just ineffective, not fully serving its other condition of being
understood. The fact that the message has been understood is established by the response
of the receiver-the feedback.

Rule of Five
Keith Davis lays down the Rule of Five to guide the receiver to be an effective
element of the communication process.
In the communication process, the role of receiver is, I believe, as important
as that of sender. There are five receiver steps in the process of
communication- Receive, Understand, Accept, Use, and Give a Feedback.
Without these steps, being followed by the receiver, no communication
process would be complete and successful.
Communication is successful whenThe message is properly understood.
The purpose of the sender is fulfilled.
The sender and the receiver of the message remain linked through
feedback.

Sender

Message

Feedback

Figure 2: Successful Communication

Receiver

UNIVERSAL ELEMENTS IN COMMUNICATION

An analysis of communication process suggests two things about communication, in
general. They are1.

The presence of some universal elements in all human communication.

2.

Some basic facts about the nature of communication.

The communication environment: All communicators act within the sensory

environment around them from which their senses keep receiving competing stimuli
impinging upon the content of communication.
Use of symbols: All communicators use verbal symbols/signs such as words, body
movements, facial expressions, and so on, to encode (and to decode) message.
The mental filter: All communicators/receivers of a message have to register, organize,
transmit, receive, and interpret only through their minds that are uniquely structured
and set with varying filters, which consist of their entire experience and thoughts.
To understand communication better, we should know the following basic facts
regarding its process.

Perfect Communication is Impossible

Human communication is essentially imperfect. All our communication encoding/decoding acts are
conditioned by the fact that a common mental filter is not humanly possible. Meanings differ because
filters differ. No two filters are alike. No two persons, therefore, involved in the act can perceive the
same meaning of a message sent and received. What they tend to have is a workable
understanding, as Verdman rightly puts it in his definition of communication.
Besides the filters, the fact that the symbols used for communicating are imprecise in their associative
meaning further contributes to the imperfection of communication. Choosing correct symbols to
encode an idea or thought/ feeling is not an easy task. We tend to often pick up imprecise symbols for
encoding. This tendency increases the chances of wrong interpretation or miscommunication between
the sender and the receiver. Moreover, even the same symbols put in different order/sequence may
change the overall meaning. Therefore, both the parties, the sender and the receiver, should possess
the same ability to interpret the meaning of symbols (words) and their structure (the order in which
they are used.)

Meaning is Not Out There

By now it must be obvious that meaning is in the mind and not in the symbols.
Symbols (except onomatopoeic words) are arbitrary signs. They have no intrinsic
meaning. They stand for things. They are not the things themselves. Their meaning is
conventional, commonly shared by the people belonging to all linguistic community.
But this literal meaning is something that lies printed in the pages of a dictionary.
Communication, on the other hand, is a living act performed in specific
contexts, in particular situations, and with a definite goal/purpose in mind. And, thus,
an effective communicator creates new meanings of symbols (words) by structuring
them in strings of image of his mind-his mental landscape.
Understanding this fundamental aspect of communication can help all receivers to
look for the meaning of word (message) that the sender must have thought of when
he chose them to communicate with them. They should not be satisfied with the usual
approach of I think it means. instead the receiver should search for what they
must have meant to the sender.

Personality Communication
Walt Whitman, in his famous Song of Myself, poetically brings
out the dimension of communication. Of his poetic processwhich is an act of communication, he says, I celebrate myself,
and sing myself, and what I assume you shall assume, for every
atom belonging to me as good belongs to you.
In fact, communication, in its final analysis can be seen as
a projection of myself-how I think, feel, believe, perceive, and
respond to reality.
If communication is anything, it is indeed a mental
representation of reality. Symbols of communication symbolize
the perceptions of the communicator.
In this regard, the complexity of communication further
arises.

Case Study
Mr and Mrs Basu went to Woodlands
Apparef to buyapullover. Mr Basu did not
read the price tag on the piece selected by him.
At the counter, while making the payment he
asked for the price. Rs. 950 was the answer.
Meanwhile, Mrs Basu, who was still
shopping come back joined her husband.
She was glad that he had selected a nice black
Pullover for himself. She point out that
There was a 25% discount on that item.
The counter person nodded in agreement.
Mr Basu was thrilled to hear that. It means the price of this pullover is just Rs. 645
That's fantastic, said Mr Basu, He decided to buy one more pullover in green colour. In
no time, he returned with the second pullover and, asked them to pack both. When he
received the cash memo for payment, he was astonished to find that he had to pay
Rs1,900 and not Rs. 1,290.
Mr Basu could hardly reconcile himself to the fact that the counter person had quoted
the discounted of price that is Rs. 950. The original price printed on the price tag was
Rs 1,225.

Question to Answer
1.
Identity the three sources of Mr Basus
information.
2.
Discuss the main filter involved in this case?
3.
What should Mr. Basu have done to avoid the
misunderstanding?
4.
Who is to blame for this communication gap? And
why?

Summary
This chapter deals with the key elements of the nature and process of
communication.
We began by discussing that human beings are poor communicators but their
communicative competence can be improved by learning and practicing effective
communication skills.
We then examined the symbolic nature of communication, which is an act of
sharing one's idea~ emotions, attitudes, or perception with another person or
group
persons through words - written spoken, gestures, signals, signs, any other
mode of transition images. This act of transmission ideas always suffers

Thereafter, we analyzed the essential elements of the process of communication

-Message, Sender, Encoding, Channel, Receiver, Decoding, Acting, Feedback,
and Communication Environment.
Next, we examined the role and responsibility of both sender and receiver in
making the communication effective. The sender should encode the message
accurately after considering the level, expectations and needs of his target
audience (receiver); the receiver should try to understand. the intended meaning
of the sender.
Finally, some universal common elements of communication and some basic
facts about the nature of communication have been discussed. The common
elements of communication are - the communication environment, use of
symbols, and mental filters.
Some basic facts about communication are that perfect communication is
impossible; the meaning of a message is in the mind/perception of the receiver;
and personality affects the effectiveness of communication.
To communicate effectively, we should develop not only'skills, but also a
sense of reciprocal empathy.

Why is communication important for good relationship and effective

management?
Why do we communicate?
Discuss communication as a two-way process of exchange of
information.
Indicate the critical difference between successful and ineffective
communication.
Discuss the important barriers in the communication process.
What is empathy? How does it contribute to the effectiveness of
communication?
What is noise? Elaborate the elements of noise in the receiver. How can
they be minimized?
Do you agree that, in its final form, communication is a manifestation of
the . personalities of both the sender and the receiver? Discuss.

Communication Skills SelfAssessment Exercise

In each of the following, read items A, B, and C, then mark the one that best describes your
communication style,
1. __A. When conversing with others, I usually do most of the talking.
__B. When conversing with others, I usually let the other person do most of the talking.
__C. When conversing with others, I try to equalize my participation in the conversation.
2. __A. When I first meet someone, I wait for the other person to make the introduction first.
__B. When I first meet someone, I introduce myself with a smile and offer a handshake.
__C. When I first meet someone, I hug the person.
3. __A. I usually "warm-up" new conversations with small talk.
__B. I usually avoid small talk and jump into more important matters.
__C. I usually avoid starting conversations.
4. __A. I make an effort to remember and use peoples' names.
__B. I don't pay attention to names as I tend to forget them.
__C. I only learn the names of important people.

5. __A. I frequently use courtesy words and phrases

"Please," "Thank you," "You're welcome," "I'm sorry."
__B. I occasionally use these courtesy words and
phrases .
__C. I never use these courtesy words and phrases.
6. __A. I tend to be serious and don't smile often while
conversing.
__B. I smile all the time while conversing.
__C. I smile at appropriate times while conversing.
7. __A. I make eye contact while conversing.
__B. I sometimes make eye contact while conversing.
__C. I never make eye contact while conversing.

8. __ A. While conversing, I hold my head still at all times.

__ B. While conversing, I nod my head at appropriate times.
__ C. While conversing, I nod my head constantly.
9. __ A. While conversing, I stand one-foot away from the person.
__ B. While conversing, ] stand two- to three-feet away from the person.
__ C. While conversing, I stand five- to six-feet away from the person.
10. __A. I often stand while talking to 11 person who is sitting.
__B. I often sit while talking to a person who is sitting.
__C. I often lean down while talking to a person who is sitting.
11. __A. To end a conversation, I often just leave.
__B. To end a conversation, I begin to look impatient hoping the person will get
the hint.
__C. To end a conversation, I wrap up with a closing statement.
12. __A. If a co-worker has put on weight, I say nothing about it.
__B. If a co-worker has put on weight, I tell the person that he or she has
changed in appearance.
__C. If a co-worker has put on weight, 1 honestly tell the person that he or she
looks fat