Chemical

Chemical Bonding
Bonding
Types of Bonds

Metallic
bonding

Io n ic B o n d in g

L e w is S tr u c tu r e s

C o v a le n t B o n d in g

R e s o n a n c e S tru c tu re s

O c te t R u le

P o la r M o le c u le s

M o le c u la r G e o m e tr ie s
VSEPR
B a s ic S h a p e s
3 -D N o ta tio n
H y b r id iz a tio n (L a b )

Chemical Bonds : the attractive force holding two or

more atoms together

3 main kinds :
Covalent bond results from sharing electrons between
the atoms,usually found between non-metals.
Ionic bond results from the transfer of electrons from a
metal to a non-metal.
Metallic bond: attractive force holding pure metals
together.

Ionic
Bonds

Between metals with low electronegativity

with non-metals with high electronegativity
Involves electron transfer
Held by strong electrostatic attraction
between the oppositely charged ions
highest tendency will be between elements
on the bottom left and those on the top right
of the periodic table.

Eg NaCl
Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Na+ (cation) : 1s2 2s2 2p6

Cl: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

Cl- (anion) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Electrons gain or lost in order to achieve the
octet/noble gas configuration

Using Lewis Structure

CaCl2

When calcium reacts with chlorine, both

electrons from Ca must be lost, so we
need 2 chlorine atoms to gain 1 each.

The oxidation states of various

elements
Grp 1,2,3 : +1, +2, +3 respectively
Grp 5, 6, 7 : -3, -2, -1 respectively
The transition element can have various
oxidation no: Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu1+, Cu2+ etc

Properties of ionic
Compounds

solids at room temperature.

form a giant crystalline lattice/network structure
ie an ordered, continuous structure .
very strong and high melting points and boiling
points
hard, brittle
do not conduct electricity when solid but do
when molten or in aqueous solution
are more soluble in water than in other solvents.

Lattice structure of NaCl

Simple cubic packing

Electronegativity

The ability of one atoms in a molecule/in a bond to

attract electrons to itself.
Pauling set electronegativities on a scale from 0.7 (Cs) to
4.0 (F).
Electronegativity increases
across a period and
down a group.

Electronegativities of Elements
Electronegativity

Bonding Continuum

It is more accurate to consider bonding as a gradual

change from solely ionic through polar covalent to nonpolar covalent.
The degree of polarity determines whether a bond is
classed as ionic or covalent but it is a gradual spectrum.
If the difference in electronegativity is > 1.7 then it is
usually . 50% ionic.
A difference of 0.4 or less is considered non-polar
covalent.

Covalent Bonding
Is the attraction of the nuclei in each atom to the valence electrons
they are sharing between them. They formed discrete separate
molecules

When bonds are formed, the atoms become lower in energy, so more
stable

The optimum distance between the two nuclei is the bond length

Electron sharing in covalent bond

formation

Carbon dioxide formed from 2

oxygen atomeach sharing 2
pairs of electrons with a
carbon atom
=

An oxygen molecule formed by

two oxygen atoms sharing two
pair of electrons

Nitrogen molecule formed when

two N atoms sharing three pair of
electrons

Pure covalent bonds

Equal sharing of electrons
Eg. H2(g) forms a single bond (shared
pair)

Polar covalent bond

Unequal sharing of electrons.

One atom will have a higher electronegativity than the
other, so it will pull the shared electrons closer to itself
making that atom slightly more negative than the other.
The Cl (3.00) is more negative than the H (2.20)

Chemical
Chemical Bonds
Bonds
Bond Type

Single

Double

Triple

# of es

Notation

Bond order

Bond
strength
Bond
length

Increases from Single to Triple

Decreases from Single to Triple

Relationship between bond

length and bond strength
As

bond length decreases, bond

strength increases because as the
atom gets larger, the forces of
attraction gets weaker

Relationship between bond

order and bond length

As the bond order increases, bond length

increases. This is because as the number
of electron pairs increases, the forces of
attraction gets greater. This would also
result in higher energy

Bond Length Values

Chemical Bonds, Lewis Symbols, and the Octet Rule

The carboxylate group

Coordinate/Dative covalent
bonds

Both the shared electrons in the bond come from the

same atom.
Eg 1 in NH4+, the nitrogen from ammonia donate a pair
of electrons when forming bonds with a H+ (a proton)
Ammonium has 3 polar covalent bonds and 1 coordinate
(dative) covalent bond.

Example 2

Example 3

Hydronium (H3O+)
Carbon monoxide
(CO)

The Octet Rule

All noble gases except He has an ns2 np6 configuration.

Octet rule: atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons
until they are surrounded by 8 valence electrons (4
electron pairs).
However, there are exceptions to the octet rule.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

1.Central Atoms Having Less than an Octet (8)
Most typical example is BeH and BF3.
Its already stable with 6 electrons surrounding
the central atom

2.Central atom having more than an octet

Observed only for elements in period three
(n=3) and beyond
Eg PCl5 (cannot be seen in Nitrogen)

Beginning with the n=3 principle quantum number,

the d orbitals become available (l=2)

Can use empty d orbitals to accommodate more

electrons

3. Odd number of electrons

There are currently 5 valence electrons around the nitrogen.

A double bond would place 7 around the nitrogen, and a triple bond
would place 9 around the nitrogen. So can never achieve the octet
configuration

How to draw a Lewis Structure

1. Count up the total number of valence e - in all your
atoms in the formula. Eg. H2O has 1 x 2 for the Hs
and 6 for O. Subtract or add electrons for any charge.
2. Draw the basic structure of the molecule where
(usually) the least electronegative atom is the central
atom. Pay attention to the number of bonds elements
usually form. Eg. H-O-H
3. Add more electron pairs to complete the octets around
the central atom followed by the side atoms (only 2
around H).
4. If there are not enough electrons to give octet to the
central atom, add double or triple bonds.
5. Check your final structure has the same number of
electrons as you started with.

Lewis Structure of HCN

1.
2.
3.

H has 1 e-, C has 4 e- and N has 5 e- = 10 e-.

Carbon forms 4 bonds, nitrogen forms 3 and
hydrogen 1.
The structural formula accounts for all of the
carbon and hydrogen valence electrons but not
for nitrogen so it must have a non-bonding pair:

Carbon tetrachloride
Carbon is the central atom.
It has 4 bonding pairs.
Chlorine wants to share
one bonding site each.
Need 4 chlorines for every
one carbon
(Cl has 3 lone pairs and 1
bonding pair)

More examples

Practice drawing and naming

Lewis Structures

H2O

CH2O
O3

Lewis structure of H2O

Lewis structure of O3

Lewis structure of CO3-

VSEPR :Valence Shell Electron

Pair Repulsion theory

Accounts for the geometric arrangement

of electron pairs around a central atom

Bonding pairs and lone pairs around an

atom in a molecule adopt positions where
their mutual interactions/repulsion are
minimized.
Electron pairs are negatively charged and
will get as far apart from each other as
possible. (Same charge = repulsion)

Molecular Shapes

There are five fundamental geometries for molecular

shape:

Figure 9.3

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VSEPR
Model

Summary
Summary of
of VSEPR
VSEPR Molecular
Molecular
Shapes
e-pairs
Notation
Name of VSEPR
Examples
Shapes
shape

AX2

Linear

HgCl2 , ZnI2 , CS2 , CO2

AX3

Trigonal planar

BF3 , GaI3

AX2E

Non-linear (Bent)

SO2 , SnCl2

AX4

Tetrahedral

CCl4 , CH4 , BF4-

AX3E

(Trigonal) Pyramidal

NH3 , OH3-

AX2E2

Non-Linear (Bent)

H2O , SeCl2

AX5

Trigonal bipyramidal

PCl5 , PF5

AX4E

Distorted tetrahedral
(see-sawed)

TeCl4 , SF4

AX3E2

T-Shaped

ClF3 , BrF3

AX2E3

Linear

I3- , ICl2-

AX6

Octahedral

SF6 , PF6-

Square Pyramidal

IF5 , BrF5

AX5E
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CyberChm Gems

See Ng Web-site

The Effect of Nonbonding Electrons

By experiment, the H-X-H bond angle decreases moving

from C to N to O:
H
H C H
H
109.5O

H N H
H
107O

H
H
104.5O

Since electrons in a bond are attracted by two nuclei, they do

not repel as much as lone pairs.(LP-LP.LP-BP.BP-BP)
Therefore, the bond angle decreases as the number of lone pairs
increases
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Figure 8.10: Drawing Lewis Structures

Resonance Structures

HyperChem

Figure 9.12

Figure 9.11: Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity

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Figure 9.13: Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity

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Covalent Bonding and Orbital Overlap

Gems - Movie Clip

Lewis structures and VSEPR do not explain why a bond

forms.
How do we account for shape in terms of quantum
mechanics?
What are the orbitals that are involved in bonding?
We use Valence Bond Theory:
Bonds form when orbitals on atoms overlap.
There are two electrons of opposite spin in the orbital overlap.

Figure 9.14: Covalent Bonding and Orbital Overlap

VSEPR Model (Figure 9.6)

To determine the electron pair geometry:

draw the Lewis structure,
count the total number of electron pairs around the central
atom,
arrange the electron pairs in one of the above geometries to
minimize e-e repulsion, and count multiple bonds as one
bonding pair.

VSEPR
Model

Drawing Lewis Structures

Formal Charge
Consider:

C N

For C:

There are 4 valence electrons (from periodic table).

In the Lewis structure there are 2 nonbonding electrons and 3
from the triple bond. There are 5 electrons from the Lewis
structure.
Formal charge: 4 - 5 = -1.

Drawing Lewis Structures

Formal Charge
Consider:

C N

For N:

There are 5 valence electrons.

In the Lewis structure there are 2 nonbonding electrons and 3
from the triple bond. There are 5 electrons from the Lewis
structure.
Formal charge = 5 - 5 = 0.

We write:

C N
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Chemical
Chemical Bonding
Bonding
Types of Bonds

Io n ic B o n d in g

L e w is S tr u c tu r e s

C o v a le n t B o n d in g

R e s o n a n c e S tru c tu re s

O c te t R u le

P o la r M o le c u le s

Lewis
AXE notation

M o le c u la r G e o m e tr ie s
VSEPR
B a s ic S h a p e s
3 -D N o ta tio n
H y b r id iz a tio n (L a b )

VSEPR shapes

Polarity