Photogrammetry

CE 426

Introduction
Definition

of Photogrammetry: the art,

science, and technology of obtaining
information about physical objects and
the environment by photographic and
electromagnetic images.

Basic Information
Mapping

from aerial photos is the best

mapping procedure yet developed for
most large projects.
Used successfully for maps varying in scale
from 1:1,000,000
1:120 with contour
intervals as small as 1 foot.
Topographic mapping is the most common
form. U.S.G.S updated and done this way.
Used to reconstruct a scaled 3-dimensional
optical model of the lands surface using a
stereoplotter.

Basic Information
Uses:

Aerial photos

Aid: geological investigations, soil

surveys, land surveys, tax mapping,
reconnaissance and military intelligence,
urban and regional development,
transportation system investigations,
quantity estimates, shore erosion, etc.
Mathematical methods have been
developed to make precise 3-dimensional
measurements from photos.
Phototriangulation:

of survey stations.

3-dimensional positioning

Basic Information Continued

Photo has been used to take geometric
measurements of human bodies, artificial
human hearts, large radio telescopes,
ships, dams, buildings and very accurate
reproductions.
In

general it is not economical for

small projects the cost break even
point is somewhere between 30 100
acres depending on the situation.

Basic Information
Photogrammetry

can not be used

successfully over the following types of
terrain.
Desert or plains areas, sandy beaches,
and snow the photograph as uniform
shades with little texture.
Deep canyons or high buildings that
conceal ground surface.
Areas covered by dense forest.

2 Basic Categories
Metrical

photogrammetry obtaining
measurements from photos from
which ground positions, elevations,
distances, areas, and volumes can be
computed and topographic or
planimetric maps can be made.
Photo interpretation evaluation of
existing features in a qualitative
manner.

Types of Photogrammetry
Aerial

series of photographs of an
area of terrain in sequence using a
precision camera.
Terrestrial photos taken from a fixed
and usually known position on or near
the ground with the camera axis
horizontal or nearly so.
Close range camera close to object
being observed. Most often used when
direct measurement is impractical.

History
The

first use of photogrammetry was by Arago,

a French geodesist, in 1840. This included
topographic and terrestrial.
The first aerial photogrammetry was by the
French in 1849 using kites and balloons.
Laussedat (French) father of photogrammetry.
1st in N. America Deville, Surveyor General of
Canada.
U.S.G.S. adopted photogrammetry as mapping
process in 1894 mapping border between
Canada and Alaska.

History
Airplanes

brought great change to

photogrammetry.

1st used in 1913.

Used extensively in WWI photo interpretation.
Used in WWII mapping for recon and
intelligence.

WWII

1960 used often, expensive and

accuracy problems for engineering design.
After mid 60s advent of computer and
plotting has made photogrammetric
mapping accurate and affordable.

Photogrammetry for
Engineering
Defined:

Photogrammetry is the
process of measuring images on a
photograph.
Modern photogrammetry also uses
radar imaging, radiant
electromagnetic energy detection and
x-ray imaging called remote sensing.

Basic Categories of
Photogrammetric Interpretation
Metrical

Photogrammetry obtaining
measurements from photos from
which ground positions, elevations,
distances, areas and volumes can be
computed and topographic or
planimetric maps can be made.
Photo interpretation evaluation of
existing features in a qualitative
manner timber stands, water
pollution, soils, geological formations,
crops, and military interpretation.

Geometry of Photographs
Orthographic

projection each point

projected normal to reference plane.
Perspective projection each point
projected through a central point, due
to points being at different elevations,
they look 3 dimensional.
Principal point (center of photo)
located at the intersection of lines
joining the Fiducial points.

 To

perform computations, one must

know:
H = height above datum from which
photos taken.
f = focal length of camera lens either in
in or mm.

Items

on photo:

Fiducial points
Date
Roll and Photo #

Scale of a Vertical Photo

f
f
S =
or
H
H
h
f = focal length 6 or 152.4 mm is common
H = height of plane above ground
h = height (elevation) of ground
H = height of place above datum [altimeter
reading (2% error)]

Scale of a Vertical Photo

Datum

Scale = the scale which would be

effective over entire photo if all points were
projected downward to datum.
SD = f
H
Average Scale = for photo planning
SAV. = f
Hhav.
Average elevation can be determined for
USGS topo maps, etc.

Relief Displacement
Relief Displacement exists because photos
are a perspective projection.
Use this to determine the height of object:
d
h=
(H)
r
h = height of object
d = radial distance to top of object-radial
distance to bottom of object.
r = radial distance to top of object.

Planning and Executing Photo

Project

Basic Overall Process:

1. Photography obtain suitable photos.
2. Control obtain sufficient control through
field surveys and/or extension by
photographic methods.
3. Map Compilation plotting of planimetric
and/or topographic features.
4. Map Completion map editing and special
field surveys.
5. Final Map Drafting

Elements of Planning
1.

Conversion of requirements to
project specs.
Factors:
1. Purpose of photogrammetry
a)

Majority of projects for engineering involves

making topographic map in a stereoscopic plotting
unit.

Wide angle photography (152mm focal length) is required

for topographic mapping because it provides better
vertical accuracy.
If area is heavily wooded, use f=210mm (standard
angle) to allow more visibility through trees.
Generally 60% overlap with 15-30% sidelap.
Orientation of flightlines is dictated more by economy than
geometric considerations.

Elements of Planning
b)

Photos for mosaics should be flown as high as

possible.

c)

Reduces relief displacement.

Orthophotos similar to topo maps, however,

should be taken normal to ground topo.

2. Photo Scale: somewhat dependent on type

of plotter.

Essentially can be dependent on type of plotter

you need to see and dividing it by the resolving
power of the photo equipment.
Also affected by map accuracy and area
configuration.

Elements of Planning
3. Allowed scale variation.

Variation caused by difference in ground elevation

and flying height.
Longer focal length reduces scale variation.
If flying height remains constant and ground
elevation increases the area covered by photo
becomes less.

Overlap becomes less

Viewfinder needed to control overlap and flightline spacing,
thus eliminating possible gaps.

4. Relief displacement

Affects mosaics most.

Large amount of relief displacement will make it difficult to

form continuous picture desired in mosaics.

Elements of Planning

Relief displacement decreases as flying height

increases, the focal length must also be increased.
Relief displacement has no adverse affect on map
making with stereo.

With greater relief displacement, elevations can be

measured and plotted more accurately.

5. Tilt

Amount in direction of flight (y tilt).

Amount normal direction of flight (x tilt).

Will cause overlap to be greater on one end than other.

Will increase sidelap on one side and decrease on other.

Y tilt corrected by viewfinder.

X tilt corrected by increasing planned sidelap.

Elements of Planning
6. Crab and Drift

Crab angle formed between flightline and

edges of photo in direction of flight and caused
by not having focal plane square with direction of
flight at time of exposure.

Corrected by rotation of camera on vertical axis through

viewfinder.
Reduces coverage, but sidelap compensates.

Drift plane not staying on flightline.

Most common cause of re-flights and gaps.

Elements of Planning
7. Flying height: determined after sidelap and
overlap determined.

Factors affecting:
1. Desired scale, relief displacement, and tilt.
2. Precision of equipment used.
Greater precision, greater possible flying height.

By doubling flying height, ground coverage increased

4 times, thus less ground control and fewer photos.
Vertical accuracy most important in topographic
mapping.
1. Flying height is related to contour interval desired.
Relationship called C-factor (precision factor)
Flying height = desired contour interval x C-factor
C-factor is the value used to compute flying height which
will produce photos satisfactory to obtain the desired
vertical accuracy of the maps.

Elements of Planning
8. Direction or orientation of terrain

2.

Arrange to fly along ridges, not across.

Gathering material and people.

1. Existing photos, maps, survey data,
instruments and personnel.

Determine specifications and

conditions for operation.
4. Preparing final plans.
3.

1. Scheduling
2. Surveying instructions
5.

Cost estimating and replanning.

Flight Design
A.

Considerations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

B.

Project boundaries
Existing and planned control
Time schedule
Final product needed
Optimum flying season
Found cover conditions

Objectives
1. Determine optimum conditions for spacing of
photos along flightlines.
2. Number and spacing of fligtlines to cover area.
3. Plan must account for allowable deviations.
4. Distance between flightlines on fllightway.

Flight Design
C.

Flight Patterns
1. Totally dependent on overlap and sidelap.

Under ideal conditions with 9x 9 photo with 6

focal length, and overlap of 57%, and sidelap of
13% will provide maximum stereo coverage with
no gaps.

If additional safety factor desired, overlap can be

increased to 70-75% and sidelap can be increased to
50%.

Computation of Flight Plan

Data required to compute flight map lines, time

interval between exposures, and amount of film
needed.
1. Focal length of camera.
2. Flying height above datum or photo scale for certain
elevation.
3. Size of photo.
4. Size of area to be photographed.
5. Positions of outer flight lines with respect to boundary.
6. Overlap.
7. Sidelap.
8. Scale of flight map.
9. Ground speed of aircraft.

Example
Area 15 miles N-S & 8.5 miles E-W
Photos 9 x 9
Save tobe 1:12000 @ 700 above elevation
Overlap 60%
Sidelap 35%
Ground speed of plane 150 mph
Flight lines to be laid out N-S on a map @ a
scale of 1:62500
Outer flight lines coincide with E & W
boundary

1.

2.

Flying Height:

1
1

H 12000 above 700 or 12700 above sea level

H 12000
Ground Distance Between Flight lines since sidelap is 35%,
photo distance between lines is 65% of 9=5.85

5.85'12000
GroundSpac ing
5850'
12" / 1'
3.

4.
5.

Number of flight lines

Total width = 8.5 miles x 5280 = 44880
44880

8 1 9 flight lines (Round up)

5850

44880
Adjust ground distance between flight lines
5610'
9 1

Spacing of flight lines on flight map

5610 12"
5610 on map @ 1:62500 scale

1.08"

62500

1'

6.

Ground Distance Between Exposures with 60% overlap gain on

each photo is 40%

.60 12000
ground distance3is:
40% of 9 = 3.60
3600'
12" / 1'