MECHANICS OF METAL

CUTTING

Topics to be covered
Inroduction to Machining Technology
Cutting Models
Turning Forces
Merchants Circle
Power & Energies

Elements of Metal Cutting

Heat Generation Zones

30% (Dependent on )
(Dependent on 60%

Chip
Tool

Workpiece

10%
(Dependent on sharpness
of tool)

Tool Terminology
Side Rake
(SR), +

End Cutting
edge angle
(ECEA)
Facing
Cutting
edge

Nose
Radius

Clearance or end
relief angle

Back
Rake
(BR),+
Turning
Cutting
edge
Side relief
angle
Side cutting
edge angle
(SCEA)

Cutting Geometry

Material Removal Rate

MRR vfd
Roughing(R)
f 0.4 1.25mm / rev
d 2.5 20mm
Finishing(F)
f 0.125 0.4mm / rev
d 0.75 2.0mm
v R v F

Cutting Models

Tool

workpiece

ORTHOGONAL GEOMETRY

Tool

workpiece

OBLIQUE GEOMETRY

Assumptions

(Orthogonal Cutting Model)

The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular
to the direction of motion, and it generates a plane surface
as the work moves past it.
The tool is perfectly sharp (no contact along the clearance
face).
The shearing surface is a plane extending upward from
the cutting edge.
The chip does not flow to either side
The depth of cut/chip thickness is constant uniform
relative velocity between work and tool
Continuous chip, no built-up-edge (BUE)

Orthogonal Cutting
r

to
ls sin

tc ls cos( )

tan

r cos
1 r sin

AC AD DC

tan( ) cot
BD
BD

Turning Forces For Orthogonal

Model
Velocityof
Toolrelativeto
workpieceV
WORKPIECE

Longitudinal F t
'Thrust' Force (27%)

F C Tangential 'Cutting' Force (67%)

DIRECTIONOFROTATION

Fr Radial
Force (6%)

'A'

'A'

CUTTINGTOOL

Fc

DIRECTIONOFFEED
Ft

Note: For the 2D Orthogonal Mechanistic

Model we will ignore the radial component

End view section 'A'-'A'

Facing Forces For Orthogonal Model

DIRECTIONOFROTATION

F C Tangential Force
Velocityof
Toolrelativeto
'Cutting' Force
workpieceV

WORKPIECE

Fr Radial Force
Thrust Force

FL
Longitudinal Force

CUTTINGTOOL
DIRECTIONOFFEED

Note: For the 2D Orthogonal Mechanistic

Model we will ignore the Longitudinal
component

End view

'Turning' Terminology
Standard Terms
D
N
rpm

Workpiece

Tool

d mm

feed
(mm/rev)

Beware, for turning: In the generalized

orthogonal model depth of cut (to) is f (the feed),
and width of cut (w) is d (the depth of cut)

N is the speed in rpm

D is the diameter of the
workpiece
f is the feed (linear
distance/rev)
d is the depth of cut
V is the surface speed
= DN

Orthogonal Cutting Model

(Simple 2D mechanistic model)
tc

Chip thickness

Velocity V

Rake
Angle
+
Chip
depth of cut

tool
Tool

t0
Shear Angle

Clearance Angle
Workpiece

Mechanism: Chips produced by the shearing process along the shear plane

Cutting Ratio
(or chip thicknes ratio)
Chip

to
Workpiece

tool

tc
A

to
tc
As Sin =
and Cos) =
AB
AB
t0
sin
Chip thickness ratio (r) = =
tc cos()

Experimental Determination of
Cutting Ratio
Shear angle may be obtained
either from photo-micrographs
or assume volume continuity
(no chip density change):

Lc
wc

tc

t0
w0

L0

Si nc e t 0w 0L 0 = t cw cL c and w 0=w c (e xp. e vi de nc e )

Cuttingratio ,r = t 0 = L c
tc L0
i.e. Measure length of chips (easier than thickness)

Shear Plane Length

and Angle
Chip
tool
B

to

tc

Workpiece

t0
Shear plane length AB =
sin
1 rc os
She ar pl ane angl e () = Tan
1rsi n
or make an assumption, such as adjusts to minimize
0
= 45 + /2 /2 (Merchant)
cutting force:

Velocities

Vc = Chip Velocity
(Chip relative to tool)

Shear Velocity
(Chip relative
to workpiece) V
s
Chip

(2D Orthogonal
V = Cutting Velocity Model)

Tool

(Tool relative to
workpiece)

Workpiece

Velocity Diagram
Vc

From mass c onti nui ty: Vt o = V ct c

si n
V c = Vr and V c = V
c os()
From the Ve l oc i ty di agram:
c os
Vs = V
c os()

Vs

Cutting Forces
(2D Orthogonal Cutting)
Chip

Tool

Fn

Fs
R
R

Workpiece

Ft

N
Fc
R

Dynamometer

Free Body Diagram

Generally we know:
Tool geometry & type
Workpiece material
and we wish to know:
F = Cutting Force
F c = Thrust Force
F t = Friction Force
N = Normal Force
F s = Shear Force
Fn = Force Normal
to Shear

Force Circle Diagram

(Merchants Circle)

Fs

Tool

Fc

F
n

F
t

Results from
Force Circle Diagram
(Merchant's Circle)
Friction Force F = Fcsin + Ftcos
Normal Force N = Fccos Ftsin
= F/N and = tan typically 0.5 2.0)

Shear Force Fs = Fccos Ftsin

Forc e Normal to She ar pl ane F n = F csi n + F tc os

Forces on the Cutting Tool

and the workpiece

Importance: Stiffness of tool holder, stiffness of machine, and

stiffness of workpiece must be sufficient to avoid significant
deflections (dimensional accuracy and surface finish)
Primary cause: Friction force of chip up rake face + Shearing
force along shear plane
Cutting speed does not effect tool forces much (friction forces
decrease slightly as velocity increases; static friction is the
greatest)
The greater the depth of cut the greater the forces on the tool
Using a coolant reduces the forces slightly but greatly
increases tool life

Stresses
On the Shear plane:

Fn
Fnsin
Normal Stress = s = Normal Force / Area =
=
AB w
tow
Fs
Fssin
Shear Stress = s = Shear Force / Area =
=
AB w
tow
Note: s = y = yield strength of the material in shear

On the tool rake face:

= Normal Force / Area =

N
(often assume tc = contact length)
tc w

= Shear Force / Area =

F
tc w

Pow
er
Power (or energy consumed per unit time) is the product of
force and velocity. Power at the cutting spindle:
Cutting Power Pc = FcV
Power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone and on the rake
face:
Power for Shearing Ps = FsV s
Friction Power Pf = FV c
Actual Motor Power requirements will depend on machine
efficiency E (%):
Pc
Motor Power Required =
x 100
E

Material Removal Rate (MRR)

Material Removal Rate (MRR) =

Volume Removed
Time

Volume Removed = Lwto

Time to move a distance L = L/V

Lwto
Therefore, MRR =
= Vwto
L/V
MRR = Cutting velocity x width of cut x depth of cut

Specific Cutting Energy

(or Unit Power)
Energy required to remove a unit volume of material (often quoted as
a function of workpiece material, tool and process:
Ut =

Energy
Energy per unit time
=
Volume Removed Volume Removed per unit time

Cutting Power (Pc)

FcV
Fc
Ut =
=
=
Material Removal Rate (MRR) Vwto wto
FsV s
Specific Energy for shearing U s =
Vwto
FV c
Fr
Specific Energy for friction Uf =
=
Vwto
wto

Specific Cutting Energy

Decomposition
1.

Shear Energy/unit volume (Us)

(required for deformation in shear zone)

2.

Friction Energy/unit volume (Uf)

(expended as chip slides along rake face)

3.

Chip curl energy/unit volume (Uc)

(expended in curling the chip)

4.

Kinetic Energy/unit volume (Um)

(required to accelerate chip)
U t = U s + U f +Uc +U m

Specific Cutting Energy

Relationship to Shear strength of Material

SHEAR ENERGY / UNIT VOLUME

FsV s
Specific Energy for shearing Us =
Vwto
sc os
Us =
= s.
si n c os()

FRICTION ENERGY / UNIT VOLUME

FV c
Fr
F
Specific Energy for friction Uf =
=
=
=
Vwto
wto wtc
APPROXIMATE TOTAL SPECIFIC CUTTING ENERGY
U t = U s + U f = s + y1+ )

Relation between Pressure and

Cutting velocity

Effect of Rake angle on Cutting

Force

Average Unit Horsepower Values of

Energy per unit volume

Typical Orthogonal Model

Violations

Geometry and form Violations (i.e. non zero angles of

inclination, not sharp - radiused end)

Shear takes place over a volume (not a line or plane)

Cutting is never a purely continuous process (cracks develop

in chip; material not homogeneous)

'Size Effect' - larger stresses are required to produce

deformation when the chip thickness is small (statistical
probability of imperfection in the shear zone)

BUE - some workpiece material 'welds' to the tool face

(cyclic in nature)