Folds

Fold

Folds form from curving, buckling, and

bending of originally planar rock
layers (e.g., beds, foliation) through
ductile deformation.

Practically, folds are defined by

the attitude of their
axis and/or hingeline, axial plane
Folds occur in any geologic layer such
as bedding, lava flow layers, foliation.
Folds range in size from mm to
km.

Are a manifestation of ductile

deformation.
i.e., form at depth where T, P are
high and fracturing does not occur.

Single Folded Surface

Hingeline
Lines joining points of maximum
(tightest) curvature

Inflection lines
Lines connecting points of zero
curvature
Half-wavelength: distance
between two inflection points

Fold domains: are separated by the

inflection lines
These fold terminologies are only
based on geometry:

Antiform: Domains with upward

closure (- curvature)

Synform: Domains with downward

closure (+
curvature)
Neutral fold: Fold that closes
sideways

Single Folded Surface

Anticline
A fold with the oldest rocks
at the core (i.e., at the
concave side).

Syncline
A fold with the youngest
rocks at the core.
Note: In simply-folded areas,
anticlines are generally
antiformal, and synclines are
synformal.

However, in refolded areas this

is not generally the case.
Antiformal syncline
Synformal anticline
4

Hingeline
A special fold axis,
connecting points of
maximum curvature
on the folded surface
Hingeline is a
physical line that
can be marked on the
folded layer with a
pen and be measured
directly with a
geologic compass

Folds in Multi-layers
In a multi-layered folded
rock, every folded layer
has its own hingeline
A plane that contains all
these hingelines is
called the hinge plane
(or hinge surface if
curved)
Hinge plane may or
may not be parallel to
the axial plane
6

Fold Axis

An imaginary line that generates the fold if it is moved parallel to itself in

space

Fold axis makes sense only for cylindrical folds

Most folds are non-cylindrical at a large scale

These can be broken into smaller cylindrical parts (domains or segments)

Axis (ln) is defined by the intersection of the:

Axial plane (S1) (or axial plane cleavage if it exists) with the folded layer (S 1), i.e,
(S1xSo)
Limbs (Sn) of the fold (SnxSn), where n could be any generation (0, 1, 2, )

Fold Shape

Shape Interlimb angle

Tightness: Is defined by
the interlimb angle

Interlimb angle: The

angle between the
tangents to the fold
surface drawn through the
inflection lines

gentle 180o-120o
open 120o-70o
close 70o-30o
tight 30o - 0o
isoclinal 0o
elastica Negative values

PET:518

Folds and its kinds

Folds result from

the plastic
deformation of
rocks at low strainrates, usually
under elevated
temperature and
pressure
conditions.
Folds are broadly
subdivided into
anticlines
(upwards convex)
and synclines
(downwards
convex).

Department Of Petroleum technology

University of Karachi

Fold Attitude
The attitude of a fold is given by the attitude of its:
Axial plane (strike, dip)
Hingeline (trend, plunge)

Vertical fold: vertical axial plane and vertical axis

Upright plunging: vertical axial plane, plunging axis
Upright horizontal: vertical axial plane, horizontal axis
Inclined plunging: inclined axial plane, plunging axis
Inclined horizontal: inclined axial plane, horizontal axis
Reclined: plunging axis trends along the dip of the inclined
axial plane
Recumbent fold: horizontal axis and axial plane

Folds are classified based on the relative

values of the dip of the axial plane, and the
plunge of the hingeline
10

Types of Folds
Monocline:
A local steepening in otherwise uniformly
dipping strata.

Isoclinal fold:
Limbs are parallel to the axial plane.

Recumbent fold:
Fold with horizontal axial plane. Commonly
isoclinal.

Symmetric vs. asymmetric folds.

11

Symmetric Folds
The median plane and the axial plane
are perpendicular, and the axial plane
divides the fold into mirror quarter waves
Polyharmonic fold: Fold waves with two
or more orders of wavelengths and
amplitude.
Large polyharmonic folds have parasitic
(smaller) fold.

12

Structural Geology
Structural geologists are concerned
with why parts of the Earth have
been bent into folds and others have
been broken by faults.
Mapping of these structures provides
important information to land
managers and mineral exploration.
Understanding of these features help
us understand the dynamic Earth.

Plate Tectonics

Tectonic Structures
Most structures are driven by the
forces of Plate Tectonics
The kinds of structures are
determined by:
Temperature and pressure
Composition
Layering
Anisotropy or Isotropy of the layers
Amount of fluids present

Tectonic Structures
Ductile
deformation
produces:

Folds
Ductile Faults
Cleavages
Foliation

Brittle Deformation
Certain types of
folds
Brittle Faults
Joints

Structural Geology
Subdisciplines of Structural Geology
Field Relations
Make accurate geologic maps
Measure orientations of small structures to inform us of
the shape of larger structures
Study the sequence of development and superposition
of different kinds of structures

Rock Mechanics the application of physics to

the study of rock materials.
Tectonic and Regional Structural Geology
Study of mountain ranges, parts of entire
continents, trenches and island arcs, oceanic
ridges

Applications of Structural
Geology
Engineering Issues

Bridges
Dams
Power Plants
Highway Cuts
Large Buildings
Airports

Environmental
Issues
Earthquake hazard
Location of landfill
sites
Contamination
cleanup
Distribution of
groundwater
Mineral exploration

Scale in Structural Geology

Microscopic Need
magnification
Foliation, Micro folds
Mesoscopic Hand
specimens and outcrops
Foliation, Folds, Faults
Macroscopic Mountainside
to map levels
Basins, domes,
Metamorphic Core
Complexes

Non-penetrative structures
not present on all scales
Faults
Isolated folds
Penetrative structures
found on any scale that we
chose to study
Slaty cleavage
Foliation
Some folds

similar

parallel

Fault offsets - the jargon

throw
displacement
Heave

Exercise 3: interpret the faults

folds exist at all scales from < mm to entire mountain ranges

both from: http://www.stmarys.ca/academic/science/geology/structural/

why do folds exist?

how do they form?
what does it mean for regional
analysis?
what do they tell us
about kinematics
from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

folded surface: basic geometric elements

crest
hinge line: where
curvature is
greatest
inflection point: where sense
of curvature changes
enveloping surface
(antiform)
(connect crests)

hinge
limb

trough
enveloping surface:
defines limit of fold
antiform: hill
anticlinorium: regional

enveloping surface
(synform)
(connect troughs)

synform: valley
synclinorium: regional
both from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

cylindrical fold: surface wraps partway around cylinder;

hinge line is straight
note hinge line can move
parallel to itself and still
be within folded surface;
generates fold
only really exist at
outcrop scale or less
hinges
curvilinear fold: curved hinge line
(noncylindrical)
are folds in photograph cylindrical?
all from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

cylindrical: move baton

parallel to paper

hinge lines not always straight

only A has straight hinge line

from: Davis and Reynolds, 1996

from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

some fold parameters defined in the profile plane:

interlimb angle

amplitude
wavelength
interlimb angle gives qualitative estimate of intensity of folding;
smaller the angle, greater the intensity
wavelength: distance between hinges of successive folds
amplitude: half height of structure measured from crest to trough

fold profile plane: perpendicular to hinge line; reference plane

true shape of fold in 2D

use to describe:
how tight is fold
how rounded is fold
note fold profile plane
not same as cross section
--cross section any vertical plane; both from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm
if hinge line plunges (as here); cross section is not profile plane

fold axis and axial surface

fold axis

fold axis: line that joins

points of maximum curvature
on folded surface
for cylindrical folds:
fold axis = hinge line
axial
surface

axial surface: imaginary surface

that joins hinge lines of different
folded surfaces (layers)
typically called axial plane,
but not always a planar surface

all from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

intersection of axial surface with ground/outcrop is axial trace

examples of axial surfaces

A: axial plane
B: curviplanar surface
(systematic)
C: curviplanar surface
(non-systematic)
D: shows axial trace
for both
cross-section
and
map view
axial trace is what
we measure

from: Davis and Reynolds, 1996

two examples of folds with

hinge lines
and
axial surfaces

from: Davis and Reynolds, 1996

to name fold, need to know facing

younging direction

anticline (antiform with normal facing)

younger

antiformal syncline
(anticline with reverse facing)
(aging like syncline)
older

syncline
older
(synform with normal facing)
younger
synformal anticline
younging direction
(synform with reverse facing, aging like anticline)
all from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

classification of folds: fold shapes (cylindrical vs. non-cylindrical)

fold facing (upward and downward-facing)
fold shape in profile plane
fold orientation (dip of axial plane)

all from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

fold orientation: fold axis horizontal

inclined

from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

upright

from http://www.stmarys.ca/academic/science/geology/structural/

recumbent

inclined
from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

fold orientation: plunge of fold axis

if fold axis is not horizontal, folds are said to be plunging
horizontal: 0-10
to classify fold completely,
shallow: 10-30
use dip of axial surface and
intermediate: 30-60
plunge of fold axis
steep:60-80
vertical: 80-90

plunging fold
from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

from:van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

fold tightness: measure of interlimb angle

gentle fold
close fold

isoclinal fold

tight fold

all from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

fold roundedness: how sharp are hinges? how straight are limbs?
rounded
rounded

rounded hinges; straight limbs

straight limbs; sharp hinges: chevron

chevron
chevron

important for mechanism

chevron

all except bottom right from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

rounded

rounded hinge

straight limbs
see earlier in lecture

similar and parallel folds

similar can be harmonic; parallel cannot (try this yourself)

from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

similar fold
note increase of
normal layer thickness (t)
in hinge relative to limbs
thickening in hinge

from: http://www.stmarys.ca/academic/science/geology/structural/

parallel fold
implications for folding mechanism;
how folds formed

try to sketch: shallowly plunging, upright, tight, similar syncline

fold symmetry: important for vergence (provides kinematic information)

if axial surface ~ 90 (10) to enveloping surface: symmetric

if axial surface < 80 to enveloping surface: asymmetric
parasitic folds often asymmetric; asymmetry depends on larger fold
note for asymmetric folds, crest and hinge are not the same
all from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm